Chengdu (成都)

1. Introduction

Chengdu (Sichuan Dialect IPA: /tsʰən˨˩tu˧sɿ˨˩˧/), also known as the "Rong City," "Jinguan City," or "Jin City," abbreviated as "Rong" or "Jin," is located in the central part of Sichuan Province, China, in the heart of the Chengdu Plain in the western Sichuan Basin. It serves as the capital of Sichuan Province, a sub-provincial city, and a national central city. Chengdu is the logistics, commerce, finance, technology, culture, and education hub of western China, as well as a transportation and communication center. It is also the location of the Joint Operations Command of the Western Theater Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army and a national pilot zone for comprehensive urban-rural reform. The permanent resident population of Chengdu is 21.403 million (2023 data), and the municipal government is located at No. 2 Jinyue West Road, High-Tech Zone.

Chengdu is one of China's earliest developed cities with a long history of sustained prosperity. According to excavation records from the Jinsha Site, Chengdu's history as a city dates back 3,200 years. Chengdu was once the capital of nine regimes: Ancient Shu, Chengjia, Shu Han, Cheng Han, Qiao Shu, Former Shu, Later Shu, Li Shu, and Daxi. It boasts rich Three Kingdoms culture and has been renowned for its prosperous agriculture, handicrafts, and advanced culture since the Qin and Han dynasties. Throughout history, Chengdu has been a key political, economic, cultural, and military center in southwestern China. During the Han Dynasty, Chengdu was listed as one of the five major metropolises alongside Luoyang. In the Tang Dynasty, it was a thriving commercial hub, rivaling Yangzhou and known as "Yang First, Yi Second." Chengdu is home to historical sites such as the Dujiangyan Irrigation System, Wuhou Shrine, Du Fu Thatched Cottage, and the Jinsha Site. It is one of the first batch of national historical and cultural cities and one of the ten ancient capitals. In 2007, it was named "China's Best Tourism City" by the China National Tourism Administration and the World Tourism Organization. In 2009, the World Centre of Excellence for Destinations awarded Chengdu the title of "World Centre of Excellence for Destinations," making it the first city in Asia to receive this honor. In 2010, UNESCO approved Chengdu's inclusion in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network, granting it the title of "City of Gastronomy," making it the first "City of Gastronomy" in Asia. In 2021, Chengdu's GDP ranked second among provincial capitals in China, second only to Guangzhou, reaching 1,991.698 billion yuan. According to the global city ranking analysis released by GaWC, Chengdu has risen to the "Beta+" tier of global cities. Following the 2021 Summer World University Games held in Chengdu, the 2025 World Games will also be hosted in Chengdu.

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2. History

As a key city in Southwest China, Chengdu has been an important political, economic, cultural, and military center in the southwestern region since ancient times. In the late Spring and Autumn period (around the 4th century BC), the fifth Kaiming King of the ancient Shu Kingdom moved its capital to Chengdu. In the fourth year of King Nan of Zhou (311 BC), Zhang Yi of the Qin state constructed the city walls of Chengdu following the layout of the Qin capital, Xianyang. During the Three Kingdoms period, it served as the capital of Shu Han, and during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, it was the capital of the Former Shu and Later Shu states, leaving behind a rich cultural heritage. Since the Qin and Han dynasties, Chengdu has been renowned for its prosperous agriculture, handicrafts, and advanced culture. During the Han Dynasty, Chengdu was listed as one of the five major metropolises alongside Luoyang. In the Tang Dynasty, its commerce flourished, and it was as famous as Yangzhou, earning the saying "Yangzhou first, Chengdu second."

2.1 Pre-Qin to Qin and Han Dynasties

During the early Xia Dynasty or even earlier, the ancient Shu Kingdom located in the Chengdu Plain had already developed a relatively advanced bronze civilization, becoming an important source of Chinese civilization and one of the cradles of the Chinese nation. According to records, the ancient Shu Kingdom had five dynasties, with capitals successively located at Qushang (present-day Wenjiang District of Chengdu), Piyi (present-day Pi County), Xindu, and Guangdu. In the late Spring and Autumn period (around the 4th century BC), the fifth Kaiming King moved the capital to Chengdu. According to the Taiping Huanyu Ji, the city's name borrows from the historical account of the Zhou Dynasty's capital establishment: when the Zhou king moved to Qi, "in one year, a settlement formed; in two years, a town; in three years, a city (cheng du)." Hence, the name Chengdu was adopted and has remained unchanged to this day, making Chengdu a rare city in China and even the world that has never changed its name since its founding. Some believe "Chengdu" is a transliteration of an ancient Shu place name. Another theory groups "Guangdu, Xindu, Chengdu" together as the "Three Capitals of Ancient Shu." Today, the Chengdu Plain hosts many cultural relics of the ancient Shu Kingdom, such as the Sanxingdui Ruins, Jinsha Ruins, Yufu Ancient City Ruins, and Wangcong Temple. The Jinsha Ruins, located within Chengdu's urban area, represent a pinnacle of ancient Shu cultural development.

The ancient Shu Kingdom was the first target in the Qin state's campaign to unify China. King Huiwen of Qin prepared for many years and opened the Stone Cattle Road (also known as the Golden Ox Road) from Qin to Shu. In 316 BC, taking advantage of the conflict between the Ba and Shu states, King Huiwen of Qin sent Sima Cuo to lead troops along the Stone Cattle Road into Shu, conquering the Shu region within months. Subsequently, the Qin king established and abolished the Shu Marquis three times, eventually establishing Shu Commandery, with its seat in Chengdu County located at the original Shu capital, Chengdu. In 311 BC, Zhang Yi of Qin constructed the city walls of Chengdu following the layout of the capital Xianyang, building the Greater City and Lesser City side by side. Based on this, Chengdu also became the city in China with the longest continuous unchanged site location documented in reliable historical records. In 256 BC, King Zhaoxiang of Qin appointed Li Bing as the governor of Shu Commandery. During his tenure, he oversaw the construction of the world-famous Dujiangyan irrigation system. From then on, the Chengdu Plain became a vast fertile land where "floods and droughts are controlled by people, famine is unknown, and there are no years of crop failure; it is called the Land of Abundance." After decades of development, by the end of the Qin Dynasty, Chengdu had replaced the Guanzhong Plain in earning the title "Land of Abundance," a reputation that continues to this day.

During the Han Dynasty, Chengdu's economy was already quite prosperous, with the brocade industry being particularly developed, becoming an important source of tribute for the imperial court. Consequently, the court established a Brocade Official in Chengdu specifically for management and built the "Brocade Official City" southwest of Chengdu. Thus, "Brocade Official City" and "Brocade City" became alternative names for Chengdu. In the second year of the Yuanshi era of Emperor Ping of Han (2 AD), Chengdu's population reached 76,000 households (approximately 354,000 people), making it one of the most populous cities at the time. It was ranked among the six major cities of the Han Dynasty alongside Chang'an, Luoyang, Handan, Linzi, and Wancheng. In the third year of the Houyuan era of Emperor Jing of Han (141 BC), Wen Dang, the governor of Shu Commandery, established the world's earliest local government-run school, the "Wen Weng Stone Chamber," in Chengdu. Literature and arts in Chengdu during the Han Dynasty also reached a high level, with Chengdu natives Sima Xiangru, Yang Xiong, and Wang Bao being among the most famous literary masters of the Han Dynasty.

During the Western Han Dynasty, the country was divided into fourteen regional inspectorates (cishi bu), with the Yi Province Inspectorate established in Luo County (present-day Guanghan City, Sichuan). The inspectorate later moved its seat to Chengdu. In the first year of the Jianwu era of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 AD), Gongsun Shu declared himself emperor in Chengdu, establishing the state of "Chengjia," changing the Yi Province Inspectorate to the Metropolitan Commandant (Sili Xiaowei), and renaming Shu Commandery as Chengdu Yin. In the twelfth year of Jianwu (36 AD), after five years of warfare, Wu Han, the Grand Marshal of the Eastern Han, finally captured Chengdu, leading to the fall of Chengjia. The Yi Province Inspectorate was re-established in Chengdu. In the fifth year of the Zhongping era of Emperor Ling of Han (188 AD), the court accepted Liu Yan's suggestion to change the regional inspectorates into provincial governors (zhou mu) with actual power to recruit soldiers and command troops. Liu Yan became the first Governor of Yi Province, setting his administrative seat in Mianzhu. In the fifth year of the Chuping era of Emperor Xian of Han (194 AD), the seat was moved to Chengdu. At that time, the Yi Province Inspectorate was a place where merchants from the Western Regions operated.

2.2 Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties

In the first year of the Zhangwu era of Shu Han (221 AD), Liu Bei, the Prince of Hanzhong, with the assistance of Zhuge Liang and others, declared himself emperor, inheriting the Han lineage, and established the state with the continuation of the Han name (historically known as Shu Han, also简称 Shu). He changed Shu Commandery to Chengdu Prefecture and made it the capital. During this period, the tripartite division among Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Sun Wu was formed. Chengdu's agriculture, salt industry, and brocade industry saw significant recovery and development during this time, growing into Shu Han's largest city and serving as the political, economic, military, and cultural center of the Shu Han regime. In the first year of the Yanxing era of Shu Han (263 AD), the Wei generals Deng Ai and Zhong Hui led armies to attack Shu Han. Liu Shan, the later ruler of Shu Han, surrendered in Chengdu. The Yi Province Inspectorate was occupied by Wei.

During the Western Jin Dynasty, the Yi Province Inspectorate was divided into Yi Province and Liang Province, with Chengdu continuing as the seat of Yi Province. In the first year of the Yong'an era of the Western Jin Dynasty (304 AD), the Di ethnic leader Li Xiong captured Chengdu and later declared himself the Prince of Chengdu. In the first year of the Guangxi era (306 AD), Li Xiong declared himself emperor in Chengdu, establishing the state of Dacheng. In the fourth year of the Xiankang era of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (338 AD), Li Shou changed the state name to "Han," historically known as Cheng Han. In the third year of the Yonghe era (347 AD), Cheng Han was conquered and destroyed by Huan Wen of the Eastern Jin, and Chengdu once again became part of the Eastern Jin's Yi Province. In the first year of the Ningkang era (373 AD), the Former Qin captured Liang and Yi Provinces, incorporating Chengdu into its territory. After the Battle of Feishui, the Former Qin collapsed. The Eastern Jin general Huan Chong took advantage of the situation and recaptured Yi Province in the tenth year of the Taiyuan era (385 AD). In the first year of the Yixi era of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (405 AD), the参军 (canjun, military advisor) Qiao Zong rebelled, occupied the Ba-Shu region, established the Qiao Shu regime, declared himself the Prince of Chengdu, and later submitted to the Later Qin as a vassal, being enfeoffed as the Prince of Shu. In the ninth year of Yixi (413 AD), Liu Yu, the Grand Commandant of the Eastern Jin, appointed Zhu Lingshi as commander to campaign against Qiao Shu. They captured Chengdu, Qiao Zong committed suicide, and Qiao Shu perished.

During the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, Yi Province successively came under the rule of five regimes: the Southern Dynasties' Song, Qi, and Liang, and the Northern Dynasties' Western Wei and Northern Zhou. Chengdu consistently remained the regional political, economic, and cultural center. During this time, Emperor Wu of Southern Qi appointed Xiao Jian as the Governor of Yi Province. He advocated moral governance and did not adopt a policy of suppressing the previous dynasty's imperial clan, restoring stability to Chengdu, which became "one of the capitals of the west." During the Liang Dynasty, the Governors of Yi Province, Deng Yuanqi and Xiao Ji, successively governed Yi Province, internally cultivating policies for agriculture, sericulture, salt, and iron, and externally facilitating trade and profits from distant places. After the Hou Jing Disturbance, in the second year of the Chengsheng era (553 AD), Western Wei troops entered Chengdu, and Yi Province was incorporated into Western Wei territory. During the Northern Zhou period, Yuwen Xian once served as the Governor of Yi Province and was deeply welcomed by the people of Shu.

During the Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties period, historians and historical works from the Chengdu region gained great fame. Lai Min, Qiao Zhou, Chen Shou, Chang Kuan, Chang Qu, Li Ying, and others produced numerous writings, with Records of the Three Kingdoms and Chronicles of Huayang being passed down through the ages. During this period, Buddhism also developed significantly in the Chengdu region.

2.3 Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties

In the first year of the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty (581 AD), Yi Province came under Sui jurisdiction. In the first year of the Zhenguan era of Emperor Taizong of Tang (627 AD), Yi Province was changed to Jiannan Circuit, with its administrative seat located in Chengdu Prefecture. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Chengdu's economy was highly developed, and its culture was very prosperous. It was one of the four famous cities of the time (Chang'an, Jiangdu, Chengdu, Dunhuang), with a population second only to Chang'an and Luoyang. Due to its economic prosperity, by the mid-Tang period, it was known as "Yangzhou first, Chengdu second." The level and craftsmanship of papermaking and woodblock printing in Chengdu during the Sui and Tang periods were very high. The imperial court once stipulated that books for the national library must be copied on hemp paper made in Chengdu. "Shu embroidery" also became one of the three famous embroideries in the country during this time, while "Shu brocade" was regarded as a precious tribute item, ranking first in national production. The Tang Dynasty saw a gathering of literary talents in Chengdu. Great poets such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Wang Bo, Lu Zhaolin, Gao Shi, Cen Shen, Xue Tao, and Li Shangyin all sojourned in Chengdu. In the fifteenth year of the Tianbao era of Tang (756 AD), Emperor Xuanzong of Tang fled to Chengdu to escape the An Lushan Rebellion. He changed Yi Province to Chengdu Prefecture and later elevated Chengdu Prefecture to the "Southern Capital" (Nanjing), marking the first historical appearance of the term "Nanjing." In the fourth year of the Dahe era of Emperor Wenzong of Tang (830 AD), the Nanzhao kingdom mobilized its entire military force, breached the outer city of Chengdu, plundered a large number of artisans, and then retreated. In the first year of the Guangming era of Emperor Xizong of Tang (880 AD), Emperor Xizong also fled to Chengdu to escape the Huang Chao Rebellion and stayed there for four years. During the Zhenguan era of Emperor Taizong of Tang, the Jianyuan Temple was built north of the city. During the Dazhong era of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, it was renamed Zhaojue Temple, which to this day is still called the "Foremost Chan Forest of Western Sichuan."In the first year of the Kaiping era of Later Liang (907 AD), Wang Jian, the Prince of Shu, declared himself emperor, established his capital in Chengdu, and founded the state of Shu, historically known as Former Shu. In the early years of Former Shu, Wang Jian diligently governed, expanded the territory, built water conservancy projects, emphasized agriculture and sericulture, and implemented a policy of "allowing the people to rest." In the absence of war, thanks to the fertile and bountiful Chengdu Plain, the economy and culture of Former Shu developed, making it a powerful state at the time. In the third year of the Tongguang era of Later Tang (925 AD), Former Shu was eventually conquered and destroyed by Later Tang. In the first year of the Yingshun era of Later Tang (934 AD), Meng Zhixiang, then the military governor of Xichuan, declared himself emperor, established his capital in Chengdu, and founded a regional separatist regime, also named Shu, historically known as Later Shu. Meng Zhixiang's son, Meng Chang, was also diligent in governance, and there were few wars within his territory, maintaining nearly thirty years of peace. He planted hibiscus all over the city walls of Chengdu, which earned Chengdu the nickname "Hibiscus City," abbreviated as "Rongcheng" or "Rong," and this has since become the official abbreviation for Chengdu. The "Hanlin Painting Academy" of Later Shu was the earliest royal painting academy in China. In November of the second year of the Qiande era of Northern Song (964 AD), Zhao Kuangyin dispatched troops to attack Later Shu. In the first month of the following year, Meng Chang surrendered, and Later Shu fell. Subsequently, the Song army lured and massacred 27,000 soldiers of Later Shu in Chengdu's Jia City. During the Former and Later Shu periods, the Chengdu region was not involved in the vicious conflicts of the Central Plains and became the most prosperous area in China at the time.

2.4 Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties

In the early Northern Song Dynasty, the imperial court established Chengdu Prefecture in Chengdu, which served as the administrative seat of the Chengdu Circuit, one of the four circuits of Sichuan and Shaanxi. In the fourth year of the Chunhua era of Northern Song (993 AD), Wang Xiaobo and Li Shun rebelled in Qingcheng near Chengdu, captured Chengdu, and established the Great Shu regime. In May of that year, the Song army recaptured Chengdu, the rebellion failed, and Chengdu Prefecture was downgraded to Yizhou. In the first year of the Chonghe era of Emperor Huizong of Song (1118 AD), Yizhou was upgraded back to Chengdu Prefecture. The Southern Song Dynasty was the most prosperous period in Chengdu's ancient history, with its economy accounting for a high proportion of the national total. In the thirty-second year of the Shaoxing era of Emperor Gaozong of Song (1162 AD), the population of the Chengdu Circuit was 1.1 million households, approximately 5.49 million people, with over 400,000 households in the Chengdu Prefecture area. At that time, Chengdu's silk industry expanded in scale and variety, and the annual silk goods submitted by Chengdu accounted for over 70% of the national total. During the Zhao-Song period, Chengdu had specialized silk, medicine, and flower markets in the east, west, south, and north of the city. Due to its developed commerce, Chengdu saw the emergence of the world's earliest paper currency, "Jiaozi," in the fifth year of the Tianxi era of Emperor Zhenzong of Song (1021 AD). During Emperor Renzong's reign, an official Jiaozi business was established in Chengdu, with the government publicly printing and issuing "Jiaozi." The culture of the Chengdu region was highly developed and influential nationwide, with the Shu School of thought, led by the brothers Su Shi and Su Zhe, standing out uniquely.

During the Song-Yuan wars, the Mongol army captured Chengdu twice, engaging in extensive burning and killing before establishing their rule over Chengdu. The Yuan Dynasty government set up the Sichuan Branch Secretariat in Chengdu, commonly known as "Sichuan Province." In 1363, Ming Yuzhen led his army to capture all the circuits of Sichuan, established the Ming Xia regime, and made Chongqing his capital. In the fourth year of the Hongwu era of Ming (1371 AD), the Ming army destroyed the Great Xia regime founded by Ming Yuzhen in Chongqing and later established the Sichuan Provincial Administration Commission in Chengdu. Emperor Taizu of Ming enfeoffed his eleventh son, Zhu Chun, as the Prince of Shu. The inner city at the center of Chengdu was demolished, and a new Shu Prince's Palace City was built, which people today refer to as the "Imperial City." In the first year of the Tianqi era (1621 AD), She Chongming took advantage of the Ming Dynasty's war with the Later Jin to rebel, killing Governor Xu Keqiu, an event historically known as the She-An Rebellion. In October, he besieged Chengdu for 102 days. In the seventeenth year of the Chongzhen era (1644 AD), Zhang Xianzhong led his army into Chengdu, declared himself emperor, founded the Great Western regime, and renamed Chengdu as the Western Capital. Subsequently, Zhang Xianzhong massacred the people of Shu, and Chengdu was also sacked and severely damaged until the Manchu Eight Banners invaded Sichuan.

In the third year of the Shunzhi era of Qing (1646 AD), the entire city of Chengdu was burned down by Zhang Xianzhong in the war. Over the next decade, the Southern Ming army and the Qing army continued to fight over cities and territories in Sichuan, leading to depopulation. As a result, the administrative seat of the Sichuan Provincial Administration Commission was temporarily moved to Langzhong in Baoning Prefecture. After the fifteenth year of the Shunzhi era (1658 AD), the Qing court implemented the "Migration from Huguang to Sichuan" policy, and Chengdu gradually recovered. The provincial capital was also moved back to Chengdu. Following the Ming system, the Qing Dynasty established the Sichuan Provincial Administration Commission in Chengdu. The emperor also appointed a Governor-General of Sichuan and a General of Chengdu to be stationed in Chengdu. In the third year of the Guangxu era (1877 AD), Ding Baozhen, the Governor-General of Sichuan, founded the Sichuan Machinery Bureau, marking the emergence of modern economic factors in Chengdu.

2.5 The Republic of China Period

In June of the third year of the Xuantong era of Qing (1911 AD), the Railway Protection Movement was launched in Chengdu. The "Chengdu Massacre" caused by the then Governor-General of Sichuan, Zhao Erfeng, suppressing the people triggered a popular uprising, which directly led to the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution and the overthrow of Qing rule. On November 27 of the same year, constitutionalist Pu Dianjun declared Sichuan's independence in Chengdu, establishing the Great Han Sichuan Military Government and serving as its governor. On March 12, 1912 (the first year of the Republic of China), the Great Han Military Government in Chengdu merged with the Shu Military Government in Chongqing to form the Sichuan Military Government, with its headquarters in Chengdu and Yin Changheng as governor. In 1914 (the third year of the Republic of China), the Beiyang Government ordered the establishment of the Xichuan Circuit in Chengdu, governing 31 counties including Chengdu and Huayang. Later, the circuit system was abolished, and the province was restored, with Chengdu remaining the capital of Sichuan Province. In 1919, news of the May Fourth Movement reached Chengdu, sparking a high tide of student movements. In 1921, Chengdu and Huayang counties were merged into a city, and a municipal preparation office was established. In 1922, the municipal preparation office was renamed the municipal public office. During this time, modern educational institutions such as Sichuan University and West China Union University were established in Chengdu. In 1928, the municipal public office was officially renamed the municipal government, and the National Government designated Chengdu as a provincial-administered city, continuing to serve as the capital of Sichuan Province.

Due to the chaotic factions of the Sichuan Army, Chengdu fell into a prolonged period of warlord contention from 1912 (the first year of the Republic of China) to 1933 (the twenty-second year of the Republic of China). In 1932 (the twenty-first year of the Republic of China), with the support of Chiang Kai-shek, Sichuan warlord Liu Xiang clashed with Liu Wenhui over control. Liu Wenhui was defeated and fled from Chengdu to Ya'an in Xikang, while Liu Xiang became the Chairman of Sichuan Province and the most powerful figure in Sichuan. From 1935 to 1937, Liu Xiang again contended with Chiang Kai-shek for control of Sichuan, with Chiang ultimately prevailing.

In 1937, with the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, various industrial and mining enterprises, universities, and cultural groups from China's coastal and riverine areas relocated to Sichuan, making Chengdu a major rear area. For example, the Central Military Academy (Whampoa Military Academy) moved to Beijiaochang in Chengdu in 1937 and remained there for 11 years until the Kuomintang retreated from the mainland, making it the period with the most trained cadets and the longest unchanged location on the mainland. Similarly, Nanjing's University of Nanking, Ginling College, Shandong's Cheeloo University, and the Medical College of National Central University moved to Huaxiba in Chengdu around 1938. Huaxiba later became known as the "paradise" of the rear area. The University of Hong Kong's Medical College also relocated to Zhengfu Street in Chengdu during the war. Shanghai's Guanghua University moved to Guanghua Village in the west, becoming the predecessor of today's Southwestern University of Finance and Economics. Starting from June 15, 1944, American aircraft bombing the Japanese mainland took off from Chengdu and its nearby airports, conducting over 900 sorties and making outstanding contributions to the War of Resistance. Before the Republic of China government relocated to Taiwan, Chengdu was the largest U.S. airbase in the Far East. In 1949, towards the end of the Second Chinese Civil War, the Kuomintang moved the Republic of China government from Nanjing to Guangzhou, Chongqing, and finally to Chengdu.

2.6 The People's Republic of China Period

On December 10, 1949, Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo flew from Chengdu to Taiwan, as Chengdu was the last major city under Republic of China control on the mainland. On December 27 of the same year, the People's Liberation Army entered Chengdu. The original Sichuan Province was divided into four administrative regions: East, South, West, and North, with Chengdu serving as the seat of the West Sichuan Administrative Region. In 1952, after the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China abolished the administrative regions and restored the Sichuan Province system, Chengdu has remained the capital of Sichuan Province. Regional institutions in Southwest China, such as the Chengdu Military Region and Chengdu Railway Bureau, were also established in Chengdu. During the First Five-Year Plan period, Chengdu was designated as one of the key industrial construction cities in the country. Among the 156 key projects aided by the Soviet Union, nine were in the electronics industry, with four located in Chengdu. In 1956, the electronics departments of three universities, including Jiaotong University, relocated to Chengdu to form the Chengdu Institute of Radio Engineering (now the University of Electronic Science and Technology of China). From September 1959 to the mid-Cultural Revolution, Chengdu served as the seat of the Southwest Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. During the Cultural Revolution, factional armed conflicts in Chengdu were frequent and prolonged, making it one of the most severe areas for armed conflict in the country, severely hindering socio-economic development. On May 6, 1967, a large-scale armed conflict occurred at the state-owned 132 Factory, shocking the nation and known as the "May 6 Incident." Conflicts between rebel and conservative factions at the factory resulted in dozens of deaths on the spot. The ten years of the Cultural Revolution also coincided with the full-scale implementation of the Third Front Construction. Starting in 1964, the People's Republic of China government carried out the Third Front Construction in the southwestern region, with the administrative office of the Southwest Third Front Construction Committee of the Central Committee located in Chengdu. The comprehensive development of the Third Front Construction in the southwestern region spurred progress in various fields in Chengdu. In particular, the relocation of numerous important factories and research institutions greatly enhanced Chengdu's scientific research and economic capabilities.Chengdu's Anshun Bridge was destroyed in the massive flood of Sichuan in 1981 and was later rebuilt.
Following the reform and opening-up, Chengdu embraced a new wave of development opportunities, gradually evolving into a major central city in western China. In terms of urban reform, leveraging its status as a southwestern hub, Chengdu was approved by the State Council in 1984—a year of comprehensive development in the reform and opening-up era—as a pilot city for comprehensive institutional reform. It became one of the earliest cities in China to initiate pilot reforms expanding enterprise autonomy and decentralizing power to foster county-level economic development. In February 1989, the State Council designated Chengdu as a city with independent planning status. In November 1993, Chengdu was designated as a national pilot city for comprehensive supporting reforms, taking the lead in establishing a socialist market economy system. In 1994, Chengdu was recognized as a sub-provincial city, along with 15 other cities. In June 2007, Chengdu and Chongqing were simultaneously approved to establish national pilot zones for comprehensive supporting reforms aimed at coordinated urban-rural development. In 2009, the Central Office for Ethical and Cultural Progress awarded Chengdu the title of "National Civilized City." In 2011, the Sichuan Tianfu New Area, most of which is located in Chengdu, received approval from the Sichuan Provincial Government. In 2014, the State Council approved the Tianfu New Area as a national-level new area. In 2016, Chengdu Tianfu International Airport officially commenced construction. In the same year, Jianyang City, where the airport is located, was transferred from the administration of Ziyang City to Chengdu’s jurisdiction. In March 2019, Chengdu secured the hosting rights for the 31st Summer World University Games, which were successfully held in 2023. In 2020, the Chengdu Eastern New Area was approved for establishment.

3. Geography

Chengdu is located in the western part of the Sichuan Basin, in the heart of the Chengdu Plain, between 102°54'–104°53' east longitude and 30°05'–31°26' north latitude. The city stretches 192 kilometers from east to west and 166 kilometers from north to south, with a total land area of 14,335 square kilometers. It borders Deyang City, Meishan City, Ya'an City, Ziyang City, and the Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture.

3.1 Topography

The urban area of Chengdu has an elevation of over 500 meters. The terrain within Chengdu is relatively complex. The eastern part consists of the Longquan Mountains and the hilly areas of the central basin. The Longquan Mountains, with elevations ranging from 600 to 1000 meters, have suffered significant vegetation destruction. This mountain range serves as the boundary between the Chengdu Plain and the central basin hills. To the east of the Longquan Mountains, gentle hills roll continuously. The central part is the Chengdu Plain, situated between the Longquan Mountains and the Qionglai Mountains, with elevations between 450 and 720 meters. It is an alluvial fan plain formed by the sedimentation of the Minjiang River, Tuojiang River, and their tributaries. Benefiting from the Dujiangyan Irrigation System, the Chengdu Plain has a dense river network and, due to its fertile soil, is one of China's most important grain-producing regions. The western part is the Qionglai Mountains, the easternmost range of the Hengduan Mountains, running northeast-southwest through Pengzhou City, Dujiangyan City, Dayi County, Chongzhou City, and Qionglai City. Many peaks here exceed 4,000 meters in elevation. This area features dramatic elevation changes and diverse landforms, boasting rich and magnificent natural landscapes. Plains account for 40.1% of the area, hills for 27.6%, and mountainous areas for 32.3%, with plains being predominant. The highest point within the city is Daxuetang (also known as Miaoji Ridge) in Xiling Snow Mountain in Dayi County, with an elevation of 5,364 meters. The lowest point is the riverbank at the exit of the Tuojiang River in Jianyang City, with an elevation of 359 meters.

3.2 Geology

Chengdu is located in the middle section of the North-South Seismic Belt. Major fault zones within its territory include the Longmen Mountain Fault Zone, the Longquan Mountain Fault Zone, the Pujiang-Xinjin-Chengdu-Deyang Fault Zone, and the Qionglai-Dayi-Pixian Zhuwa-Pengzhou Fault Zone. Among these, the Pujiang-Xinjin-Chengdu-Deyang Fault Zone passes through the main urban area. Chengdu has been designated by the State Council as a national-level key seismic monitoring and defense zone and city. According to historical data, earthquakes are relatively frequent in the Chengdu area, including destructive ones. For example, the magnitude 5.5 earthquake between Shuangliu and Renshou in Chengdu on January 14, 1967; the magnitude 6.2 earthquake in Dayi County, Chengdu on February 24, 1970, which is the largest recorded earthquake in Chengdu's history; and the magnitude 5.1 earthquake in Qingbaijiang District, Chengdu on February 3, 2020, which was the closest to the urban center. Additionally, some strong earthquakes from neighboring areas (such as the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, whose epicenter was less than 100 kilometers from downtown Chengdu) have also affected the Chengdu region, causing certain impacts.

3.3 Hydrology

Chengdu has a well-developed river system with a high river network density, significantly influenced by human factors. Over 2,000 years ago, Li Bing, the governor of Shu Commandery, "cut through Mount Yulei to eliminate the water disaster" and constructed the Dujiangyan Irrigation System. Over the past 2,000 years, the rivers on the Chengdu Plain have undergone multiple modifications, resulting in a complex network of rivers and channels formed by the Minjiang and Tuojiang rivers. The city's river network density is as high as 1.22 km/km², ranking first in Sichuan Province. Along with the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta, it is one of China's regions with the densest river networks. There are about 40 major rivers in the city, with a total length of 1,486 kilometers, including the Jian River, Xi River, and Jin River, each over 100 kilometers long. The terrain of Chengdu is higher in the northwest and lower in the southeast, so all rivers flow from northwest to southeast, forming a typical fan-shaped water system. The southwestern part of Chengdu's water system belongs to the Minjiang River basin, while the northeastern and southeastern parts belong to the Tuojiang River basin. The Jin River, Fu River, and Sha River flow through the urban area.

3.4 Climate

Chengdu has a subtropical humid monsoon climate, also exhibiting some characteristics of a maritime climate. The climate is pleasant, featuring night rain and daytime sunshine, cool summers, warm winters, and long spring and autumn seasons. Chengdu has abundant precipitation and humid air. Apart from autumn and winter, sunshine is also relatively ample. The annual average temperature in Chengdu ranges from about 15.2°C to 16.6°C. Due to the barrier effect of the Qinling Mountains and Daba Mountains in the northern part of the Sichuan Basin, cold air from the north in winter has difficulty entering the basin, making Chengdu's winters warm. The average January temperature is above 5°C, and frost and snow are relatively rare. The average July temperature in Chengdu is 25.2°C, typically lower than cities at similar latitudes such as Shanghai, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Chongqing, and Wuhan. However, persistent extreme high temperatures exceeding those in the aforementioned cities can also occur.

Meteorological Data for Shuangliu District, Chengdu (1981–2010)

| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | |-----------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------|----------|----------|----------| | Record High (°C / °F) | 18.9 (66.0) | 24.0 (75.2) | 31.8 (89.2) | 32.5 (90.5) | 35.2 (95.4) | 37.5 (99.5) | 37.3 (99.1) | 36.6 (97.9) | 36.2 (97.2) | 30.1 (86.2) | 26.2 (79.2) | 18.4 (65.1) | 37.5 (99.5) | | Average High (°C / °F) | 9.4 (48.9) | 11.8 (53.2) | 16.3 (61.3) | 21.9 (71.4) | 26.6 (79.9) | 28.1 (82.6) | 29.8 (85.6) | 29.6 (85.3) | 25.8 (78.4) | 20.9 (69.6) | 16.3 (61.3) | 10.7 (51.3) | 20.6 (69.1) | | Daily Mean (°C / °F) | 5.6 (42.1) | 7.9 (46.2) | 11.5 (52.7) | 16.6 (61.9) | 21.3 (70.3) | 23.8 (74.8) | 25.4 (77.7) | 24.9 (76.8) | 21.6 (70.9) | 17.2 (63.0) | 12.4 (54.3) | 7.1 (44.8) | 16.3 (61.3) | | Average Low (°C / °F) | 2.9 (37.2) | 5.1 (41.2) | 8.1 (46.6) | 12.7 (54.9) | 17.3 (63.1) | 20.6 (69.1) | 22.2 (72.0) | 21.7 (71.1) | 18.9 (66.0) | 14.8 (58.6) | 9.8 (49.6) | 4.5 (40.1) | 13.2 (55.8) | | Record Low (°C / °F) | -4.6 (23.7) | -2.6 (27.3) | -1.8 (28.8) | 4.0 (39.2) | 6.3 (43.3) | 14.2 (57.6) | 16.6 (61.9) | 16.0 (60.8) | 12.2 (54.0) | 3.1 (37.6) | 0.2 (32.4) | -4.1 (24.6) | -4.6 (23.7) | | Average Precipitation (mm / inches) | 8.9 (0.35) | 12.9 (0.51) | 22.4 (0.88) | 47.6 (1.87) | 76.9 (3.03) | 114.3 (4.50) | 208.1 (8.19) | 197.2 (7.76) | 111.0 (4.37) | 35.5 (1.40) | 14.8 (0.58) | 6.1 (0.24) | 855.7 (33.68) | | Average Precipitation Days (≥0.1mm) | 7.0 | 8.5 | 10.9 | 13.0 | 14.7 | 15.2 | 17.6 | 15.8 | 15.6 | 13.1 | 7.7 | 5.2 | 144.3 | | Average Relative Humidity (%) | 85 | 83 | 81 | 80 | 77 | 82 | 86 | 86 | 85 | 85 | 84 | 85 | 83 | | Monthly Sunshine Hours | 53.3 | 51.4 | 83.1 | 113.9 | 121.7 | 117.2 | 131.9 | 155.0 | 77.6 | 59.4 | 57.2 | 51.6 | 1,073.3 | | Percentage of Possible Sunshine (%) | 17 | 17 | 23 | 30 | 29 | 28 | 31 | 38 | 21 | 17 | 18 | 16 | 24 |

3.5 Resources and Environment

Chengdu boasts relatively abundant biological resources, primarily concentrated in its western mountainous regions. Rare plants within the city include ginkgo and dove tree, while rare animals include the giant panda, red panda, and golden snub-nosed monkey. Chengdu is also rich in diverse mineral resources. Over 60 types of minerals have been identified across more than 400 mining areas, with a relatively concentrated distribution. The proven coal reserves amount to 146 million tons, mainly located in Pengzhou, Dujiangyan, Chongzhou, and Dayi counties in the western border mountainous areas. The proven natural gas reserves are 1.677 billion cubic meters, with prospective reserves of 4.221 billion cubic meters, primarily concentrated in Pujiang, Qionglai, Dayi, Dujiangyan, and Jintang. The reserves of glauberite reach 9.862 billion tons, ranking first in the country, mainly concentrated in Xinjin and Shuangliu counties. Various metal mineral resources are relatively concentrated in Pengzhou City.

In 2015, the forest coverage rate in Chengdu was 38.4%. The city currently has 4 national forest parks, 3 provincial forest parks, 2 national nature reserves, and 2 provincial nature reserves. The urban area of Chengdu has built 93 parks, with 11 large urban forest parks in the central city area, such as Guixi Ecological Park, Beihu Park, and Jinsha Site Park, already completed or under construction. In 2007, the National Greening Committee and the State Forestry Administration awarded Chengdu the title of "National Forest City," making it the fourth city in China to receive this honor. In 2015, the green coverage rate in Chengdu's built-up area was 38.7%, with a green space rate of 35.57%. The per capita public green space area was 14.59 square meters, ranking among the highest in China.

Chengdu is located in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River basin. Rivers mainly flow through high mountains and gorges into the Chengdu Plain. The water sources include atmospheric precipitation, underground runoff, and snowmelt, with minimal human pollution, resulting in excellent water quality. Most indicators meet the national Class III surface water standards. In recent years, Sichuan Province has vigorously developed the hydropower industry, which has damaged the ecology of several rivers in Chengdu. For example, multiple hydropower stations on the upper reaches of the Min River have nearly turned it into an artificial river. Some have pointed out that the Zipingpu Water Control Project will severely affect the functionality of the Dujiangyan irrigation system.

However, in stark contrast to its excellent greening and water bodies, Chengdu has long been one of the cities with poorer air quality in China, consistently failing to meet standards. This is due to factors such as a large number of vehicles, a high degree of industrialization, and its enclosed terrain within the Sichuan Basin. Since the implementation of documents like the "Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan" in 2013 and the "Blue Sky Defense War Implementation Plan (2018-2020)," Chengdu's central urban area achieved 287 days of air quality compliance in 2019, with an excellent rate of 78.6%, reaching the best level since 2013. According to the "Ambient Air Quality Standards" (GB3095-2012) evaluation of the environmental air quality in Chengdu's central urban area, four indicators—CO2, CO, PM10, and ozone—met the standards, with PM10 meeting the standard for the first time. All subordinate counties, districts, and cities also completed their annual target tasks.

4. Administrative Divisions

Chengdu is one of the 15 sub-provincial cities in the People's Republic of China. It administers 12 municipal districts, 3 counties, and has jurisdiction over 5 county-level cities.

• Municipal Districts: Jinjiang District, Qingyang District, Chenghua District, Jinniu District, Wuhou District, Longquanyi District, Qingbaijiang District, Xindu District, Wenjiang District, Shuangliu District, Pidu District, Xinjin District
• County-level Cities: Dujiangyan City, Qionglai City, Chongzhou City, Pengzhou City, Jianyang City
• Counties: Dayi County, Pujiang County, Jintang County

Chengdu's urban planning is divided into two levels: the Central Urban Area and the Main Urban Area, which are two distinct concepts. On July 2, 2017, at the Chengdu National Central City Industrial Development Conference, the city planned the scope of the Central Urban Area to include 11 districts: Jinjiang, Qingyang, Jinniu, Wuhou, Chenghua, Longquanyi, Qingbaijiang, Xindu, Wenjiang, Shuangliu, and Pidu, plus the Chengdu High-tech Industrial Development Zone and the Chengdu Directly Administered Area of the Tianfu New Area. The remaining counties (cities) form the "Suburban New Towns." Prior to this, according to the Chengdu City Master Plan (2011–2020), the Chengdu Central Urban Area was defined as the area within the Ring Expressway (including a 500-meter green belt outside the road), plus the administrative areas of Jinjiang, Qingyang, Jinniu, Wuhou, and Chenghua districts outside the Ring Expressway and the Dayuan cluster in the Southern High-tech Zone, covering approximately 630 square kilometers. According to the Sichuan Provincial Urban System Plan, the Chengdu Main Urban Area encompasses all municipal districts of Chengdu City. Furthermore, the Chengdu City Planning Area is defined as the administrative areas of 11 districts—Jinjiang, Qingyang, Jinniu, Wuhou, Chenghua, Longquanyi, Qingbaijiang, Xindu, Wenjiang, Shuangliu, and Pidu—plus the administrative areas of Puxing and Jinhua towns in Xinjin County, covering an area of 3,753 square kilometers.

On December 27, 1949, the Chinese People's Liberation Army entered and stationed in Chengdu, making it the seat of the Western Sichuan Administrative District. In 1952, the Western Sichuan Administrative District was abolished, the Sichuan Province system was restored, and Chengdu City and Wenjiang Special District were placed directly under Sichuan Province, with Chengdu serving as the seat of the Sichuan Provincial People's Government. In 1977, Jintang and Shuangliu counties from Wenjiang Prefecture were transferred to Chengdu's jurisdiction. In 1983, Wenjiang Prefecture was dissolved; its 10 counties—Wenjiang, Pi, Guan, Peng, Xindu, Xinjin, Chongqing, Qionglai, Pujiang, and Dayi—were transferred to Chengdu's jurisdiction, while Shifang and Guanghan were placed under the newly established Deyang City. In May 2016, the Sichuan Provincial Government approved the transfer of the county-level city Jianyang, previously administered by Ziyang City, to be administered by Chengdu City. On November 24, 2016, Pi County was abolished and the Chengdu Pidu District was established. On June 19, 2020, Xinjin County was abolished and the Chengdu Xinjin District was established.

| Division Code | Division Name | Chinese Pinyin | Area (sq km) | Resident Population (2020 Census) | Government Seat | Postal Code | Subdistricts | Towns (Co-located with Subdistricts) | | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | | 510100 | Chengdu City | Chéngdū Shì | 14,334.78 | 20,937,757 | High-tech Zone | 610000 | 162 | 100 (12) | | 510104 | Jinjiang District | Jīnjiāng Qū | 60.99 | 902,933 | Chenglong Road Subdistrict | 610000 | 12 | | | 510105 | Qingyang District | Qīngyáng Qū | 66.31 | 955,954 | Caoshi Street Subdistrict | 610000 | 12 | | | 510106 | Jinniu District | Jīnniú Qū | 107.65 | 1,265,398 | Fuqin Subdistrict | 610000 | 13 | | | 510107 | Wuhou District | Wǔhóu Qū | 122.40 | 1,855,186 | Jiangxi Street Subdistrict | 610000 | 15 | | | 510108 | Chenghua District | Chénghuá Qū | 108.25 | 1,381,894 | Mengzhuiwan Subdistrict | 610000 | 11 | | | 510112 | Longquanyi District | Lóngquányì Qū | 555.69 | 1,346,210 | Longquan Subdistrict | 610100 | 7 | 3 | | 510113 | Qingbaijiang District | Qīngbáijiāng Qū | 378.94 | 490,091 | Dawan Subdistrict | 610300 | 2 | 5 | | 510114 | Xindu District | Xīndū Qū | 496.49 | 1,558,466 | Guihu Subdistrict | 610500 | 7 | 2 (2) | | 510115 | Wenjiang District | Wēnjiāng Qū | 276.14 | 967,868 | Liucheng Subdistrict | 611100 | 6 | 3 (1) | | 510116 | Shuangliu District | Shuāngliú Qū | 1,067.63 | 2,659,829 | Dongsheng Subdistrict | 610200 | 15 | 4 (4) | | 510117 | Pidu District | Pídū Qū | 437.18 | 1,672,025 | Pijian Subdistrict | 611700 | 9 | 3 (3) | | 510118 | Xinjin District | Xīnjīn Qū | 329.02 | 363,591 | Wujin Subdistrict | 611400 | 4 | 4 | | 510121 | Jintang County | Jīntáng Xiàn | 1,155.61 | 800,371 | Zhaozhen Subdistrict | 610400 | 6 | 10 | | 510129 | Dayi County | Dàyì Xiàn | 1,283.64 | 515,962 | Jinyuan Subdistrict | 611300 | 3 | 8 | | 510131 | Pujiang County | Pújiāng Xiàn | 580.14 | 255,563 | Heshan Subdistrict | 611600 | 2 | 6 | | 510181 | Dujiangyan City | Dūjiāngyàn Shì | 1,208.44 | 710,056 | Guankou Subdistrict | 611800 | 6 | 5 | | 510182 | Pengzhou City | Péngzhōu Shì | 1,421.43 | 780,399 | Tianpeng Subdistrict | 611900 | 4 | 9 | | 510183 | Qionglai City | Qiónglái Shì | 1,376.63 | 602,973 | Linqiong Subdistrict | 611500 | 6 | 8 | | 510184 | Chongzhou City | Chóngzhōu Shì | 1,088.70 | 735,723 | Chongyang Subdistrict | 611200 | 6 | 9 | | 510185 | Jianyang City | Jiǎnyáng Shì | 2,213.50 | 1,117,265 | Shehongba Subdistrict | 641400 | 16 | 21(2) |

5. Economy

Chengdu is an important national central city in western China and one of the central cities of the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration. Since ancient times, it has been the political, economic, and cultural center of southwestern China. Since the reform and opening-up, Chengdu has become a logistics and commercial hub, financial center, technology center, transportation hub, and communication hub in southwestern China. It is a significant national base for high-tech industries, modern manufacturing, modern services, and modern agriculture. Chengdu is an inland open city and a pilot city for comprehensive supporting reforms that took the lead in establishing a socialist market economy system. In 1992, it was ranked 11th among the "Top 50 Chinese Cities in Comprehensive Strength" by the China Urban Social and Economic Development Level Evaluation Committee. Its investment hard environment entered the national top 40, and it became the first sub-provincial city to be awarded the title of National Sanitary City. In 2019, Chengdu's GDP reached 1,701.265 billion yuan, with a tertiary industry structure of 3.6:30.8:65.6. The per capita disposable income of urban residents was 45,878 yuan, and that of rural residents was 24,357 yuan, ranking 7th nationwide.

Chengdu is also the city in western China that attracts the most foreign investment. In 2014, its actual utilized foreign capital amounted to $10.016 billion, of which $8.76 billion was actually utilized foreign direct investment. In 2014, Chengdu's total import and export volume reached $55.84 billion, with exports amounting to $33.82 billion, ranking 7th among sub-provincial cities. Its export volume accounted for 75.4% of Sichuan Province's total exports. Chengdu is the preferred destination for foreign companies investing in western China. Numerous multinational corporations have established a presence in Chengdu. By the end of 2013, 245 Fortune Global 500 companies had set up branches or offices in Chengdu, including over 190 overseas Fortune Global 500 companies and over 40 mainland Chinese Fortune Global 500 companies, ranking first among cities in central and western China.

Chengdu aims to become a modern mega-central city and a world-class modern garden city with the best entrepreneurial environment, the most livable conditions, and the strongest comprehensive strength in central and western China. It is also committed to building a financial center for central and western China. Chengdu has achieved significant accomplishments in industries such as electronics and information technology, biomedicine, chemical engineering, furniture and footwear manufacturing, animation and media, convention and exhibition, aerospace, and tourism, steadily solidifying its status as one of China's top ten cities and a central city in western China.

5.1 Agriculture

The Chengdu Plain, with its fertile land, mild climate, and abundant rainfall, became one of China's most agriculturally developed regions after the construction of the Dujiangyan Irrigation System during the Qin Dynasty. Until modern times, prosperous agriculture was the foundation of Chengdu's economic vitality. The Dujiangyan irrigation area is the largest in China, greatly promoting and influencing agricultural development in 37 counties (cities, districts) of the central and western Sichuan Basin. Wenjiang District and Pi County under Chengdu's jurisdiction, known as "Golden Wenjiang, Silver Pi County," are particularly fertile and located directly downstream of Dujiangyan, making them the granary within the granary.

Currently, Chengdu is one of China's important national bases for commercial grain, oil, vegetables, fruits, and medicinal herbs. Longquanyi District, Pengzhou City, and Jintang County are national demonstration bases for pollution-free fruit production. Flower cultivation in areas like Wenjiang District and Sansheng Township in Jinjiang District has also reached a considerable scale. The 6th China Flower Expo was held in Wenjiang District in 2005. However, recent developments in industry and the tertiary sector have gradually reduced agriculture's share of GDP. In 2016, Chengdu's agricultural output accounted for only 3.9% of its GDP, making it one of China's megacities with a relatively low agricultural proportion. In 2016, Chengdu's total grain output reached 2.904 million tons, a decrease of 2%; total oilseed output reached 335,000 tons, an increase of 0.2%.

5.2 Industry

In the early 1950s, Chengdu became one of China's three key electronic industrial bases, with a number of military-industrial enterprises successively established in the eastern suburbs, marking the beginning of Chengdu's modern industry. The Third Front construction starting in 1964 led to the establishment of a large number of large state-owned enterprises in Chengdu, fundamentally transforming its economy from one primarily based on agriculture and the tertiary sector and laying the foundation for its secondary industry. During the Third Front construction period, the division of labor in southwestern China was formally established: Chengdu as the center for electronics, aerospace, communications, and transportation industries, and Chongqing as the center for heavy industry, military industry, and machinery. This division of labor continues to have an impact today.

Today, in the field of electronics and information manufacturing, Chengdu has attracted renowned domestic and international companies such as Intel, Texas Instruments, General Electric, Ericsson, Cisco, Siemens, SAP, Lenovo, Huawei, ZTE, and BOE. Electronics manufacturing service providers like Foxconn and Compal, as well as computer manufacturers like Dell and Lenovo, have established industrial bases in Chengdu.

5.3 Services

5.3.1 Commerce and Trade

Chengdu's commercial and trade activities are highly active with a broad radiating influence. In March 2009, the State Council issued the Logistics Industry Adjustment and Revitalization Plan, designating Chengdu as one of 21 national logistics node cities. In October 2010, the State Council approved the establishment of the Chengdu High-Tech Comprehensive Bonded Zone. The convention and exhibition industry is also a significant economic sector in Chengdu. In 2016, the tertiary sector accounted for 53.1% of Chengdu's GDP. The total retail sales of consumer goods reached 564.74 billion yuan. The city had 43 commodity trading markets with an annual turnover exceeding 100 million yuan and 26 markets with a turnover exceeding 1 billion yuan.

The core commercial districts in Chengdu's urban area include the Chunxi Road business district, Taikoo Li business district, Yanshikou business district, Jianshe Road business district, China Resources Mixc business district, and Raffles City business district. Other commercial areas or complexes include Xinnantiandi (Galleria, IKEA, Decathlon, Suning Plaza), Oasis Plaza, Jiufang Plaza, Hongpailou, Shuangnan, Old Convention and Exhibition Center, West Street, Guanghua business district, Jinwan Wanda, Renbei Wanda, and R&F Properties Plaza. Additionally, Chengdu features folk culture streets such as Kuanzhai Alley, Qintai Road, Jinli, and Wenshufang; food gathering areas like Kehua North Road, Yipintianxia, Renmin North Road Wanda Plaza, Guanghuacun, Jianshe Road, and Tangba Street; and specialized commercial districts like the Songxianqiao Antique Market, Tiaosanta-Moziqiao Electronics Market, Chenghuangmiao Electronics Market, and Taisheng South Road Communications Street.

• Hongzhaobi Street on Renmin South Road
• Zhongshan Square on Chunxi Road
• Chengdu IFS International Finance Centre
• Night view of New Century Global Center
• Chengdu Nijiaqiao Business District
• Shangri-La Hotel Chengdu
• Tianfu Square Chengdu
• Qintai Road Chengdu
• Urban construction in Jinjiang District
• Taikoo Li Chengdu
• Chengdu Yintai Centre
• Chengdu MixC
• Chengdu Financial City
• Anshun Langqiao (Covered Bridge)
• Kuanzhai Alley
• Street view in downtown Chengdu

6. Transportation

Chengdu is a top-tier hotspot city for automobile consumption in China. As of the end of July 2017, the number of small passenger cars registered in Chengdu reached 4.32 million, ranking second in the country. The utilization rate of small car license plates had already met the requirements for implementing a new license plate issuing authority code.

6.1 Public Transportation

Chengdu's public transportation currently relies mainly on buses, rail transit, and taxis. Chengdu currently operates over 500 bus routes and more than ten BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) lines, with over 12,000 buses in service. The bus network covers all central urban areas and some suburban new towns. The number of taxis in Chengdu is approximately 20,000, with about 12,000 in the central urban area. The main models are Jetta and Volkswagen Sagitar, with fares determined by the vehicle type.

6.1.1 Rail Transit

Chengdu's rail transit includes the Chengdu Metro, Chengdu Suburban Railway, and Chengdu Tram. The Chengdu Metro began construction in 2005, with its first line—Line 1—opening in September 2010. It has since undergone three phases of construction. Today, the Chengdu Metro has built a network comprising 12 lines with a total length of 518 km, connecting Chengdu's two major airports, railway passenger stations, main commercial and residential areas. It covers 11 municipal districts (except Qingbaijiang District) and parts of Jianyang City. The highest single-day passenger volume exceeds 8 million trips. The currently under-construction fourth phase of the Chengdu Metro project was approved in 2019. It includes the construction and extension of 8 lines, totaling about 177 km, and is expected to be completed by 2024.

The Chengdu Suburban Railway includes the Chengdu–Dujiangyan Railway and the Chengdu–Pujiang Railway. The Chengdu–Dujiangyan Railway connects the main urban area of Chengdu with Dujiangyan City and Pengzhou City to the northwest. Its main line starts at Chengdu Station and ends at Qingchengshan Station, with additional branches to Lidui and Pengzhou, totaling 94.2 km. It opened on May 12, 2010. The Chengdu–Pujiang Railway starts at Chengdu West Station and ends at Chaoyanghu Station in Pujiang County, connecting the four western suburban counties/cities of Chongzhou, Dayi, Qionglai, and Pujiang. It is 99 km long and opened on December 28, 2018. An under-construction suburban railway includes the Ziyang Line connecting Ziyang City and Tianfu International Airport.

The currently operating Chengdu tram line is the Chengdu Tram Rong Line 2. It starts at Chengdu West Station and extends northwest in a Y-shape, connecting the High-tech West Zone and Pi District, finally reaching Pixian West Station and Renhe Station. It is 39.3 km long and opened fully by the end of 2019.

6.2 Highways

Chengdu is a typical radial city, with its main urban roads forming a pattern of ring roads overlaid with radial roads. The main ring roads include the Inner Ring Road, First Ring Road, Second Ring Road, Middle Ring Road, Third Ring Road, G4202 Chengdu Ring Expressway (Fourth Ring Road), Fifth Ring Road (Chenghuan Road), SA2 Chengdu Second Ring Expressway (Sixth Ring Road), and SA3 Chengdu Metropolitan Area Ring Expressway (Seventh Ring Road). The Second Ring Road elevated road began trial operation on May 28, 2013. It is the first complete elevated express corridor within Chengdu's central urban area, with a total length of 28.3 km. Its construction has alleviated some of the current urban traffic pressure.

The main radial roads include the north-south central axis composed of Renmin North Road, Middle Road, and South Road; Shudu Avenue; Xinhua Avenue; Yangshi Street and its western extension; Hongxing Road and its north-south extensions; Dongchenggen Street and its southern extension; and Beixin Avenue, among others. One or more free express corridors have been built (or are under construction) connecting Chengdu's urban area to various suburban counties (cities) and key scenic spots. According to 2015 statistics, the road network density in Chengdu's central urban area reached 5.4 km/sq km.

Chengdu is the largest highway hub in Sichuan Province and the Southwest region. Six national highways—G108, G213, G317, G318, G319, and G321—and several provincial highways converge in Chengdu. Chengdu boasts a well-developed expressway network and was the first city in western China to achieve expressway access to every county. National expressways passing through Chengdu include: G5 Beijing–Kunming Expressway (also part of G93 Chengdu–Chongqing Ring Expressway) with the Chengdu–Mianyang section (Chengmian Expressway) and Chengdu–Ya'an section (Chengya Expressway); G42 Shanghai–Chengdu Expressway Chengdu–Nanchong section (Chengnan Expressway); G76 Xiamen–Chengdu Expressway Chengdu–Longchang section (Chengdu–Chongqing Expressway); G4215 Chengdu–Zunyi Expressway co-aligned with G4216 Chengdu–Lijiang Expressway; G4217 Chengdu–Changdu Expressway (comprising Chengdu–Dujiangyan Expressway and Dujiangyan–Wenchuan Expressway); G5013 Chongqing–Chengdu Expressway; G4202 Chengdu Ring Expressway; G0512 Chengdu–Leshan Expressway; as well as S8 Chengdu–Mingshan Expressway, S1 Chengdu–Wanzhou–Chongqing Expressway, S2 Chengdu–Bazhong Expressway, and S6 Chengdu–Emeishan Expressway. Currently, the Chengdu Economic Zone Ring Expressway and S3 Chengdu–Ziyang–Chongqing Expressway (i.e., Tianfu Airport Expressway) are under planning and construction.

Chengdu's main long-distance bus stations include: Chengdu East Passenger Transport Station, Wuguiqiao Bus Terminal (Chengdu General Bus Station), Xinnanmen Bus Station (Chengdu Tourism Distribution Center), Beimen Bus Station (Liangjiaxiang Bus Station), Chengdong Passenger Transport Center, Zhaojuesi Bus Station, Chadianzi Passenger Transport Station, and Shiyangchang Bus Station.

6.3 Railway

Chengdu is the largest railway hub in Southwest China, located at the junction of five electrified mainline railways: Baoji–Chengdu, Chengdu–Kunming, Chengdu–Chongqing, Dazhou–Chengdu, and Nanjing–Chengdu. The branch line Chengdu–Wenchuan Railway is also integrated into the Chengdu hub. Currently, within Chengdu's jurisdiction, there are three high-speed passenger rail lines: the Chengdu–Chongqing High-Speed Railway connecting the Chengdu–Chongqing urban agglomeration; the Xi'an–Chengdu High-Speed Railway connecting Chengdu and Xi'an; and the Chengdu–Guiyang High-Speed Railway connecting Chengdu and Guiyang.

The Chengdu Railway Bureau is one of China's 18 railway bureaus, primarily managing and operating railways in most of Sichuan, all of Chongqing Municipality, and the Zhaotong area of Yunnan Province. It oversees 12 national trunk lines—Baoji–Chengdu, Chengdu–Chongqing, Xiangyang–Chongqing, Chengdu–Kunming, Sichuan–Guizhou, Shanghai–Kunming, Guizhou–Guangxi, Neijiang–Liupanshui, Chongqing–Huaihua, Suining–Chengdu—and 11 national branch lines, as well as four joint-venture railways: Dazhou–Chengdu, Dazhou–Wanzhou, Leshan–Bazhong, and Chengdu–Dujiangyan. Its operating mileage exceeds 6,000 km.

Chengdu has stations including Chengdu Station, Chengdu East Station, Chengdu South Station, Chengdu North Station, Bali Station, and Chengdu West Station. Chengdu Station is the largest railway passenger transport center in Southwest China and the largest special-class passenger station under the Chengdu Railway Bureau. Chengdu East Station is currently the largest and first modern railway passenger transport hub put into operation in Southwest China. Chengdu North Marshalling Yard is one of China's largest and most technologically advanced marshalling yards, serving as a network-wide marshalling yard for the Southwest region. The Chengdu Railway Container Center Station is the largest among China's 18 container center stations.

According to the national Medium and Long-term Railway Network Plan (2016), Chengdu will build a comprehensive railway hub. Projects such as the capacity expansion and upgrading of the Chengdu–Kunming Railway, the Sichuan–Qinghai Railway from Chengdu to Xining, the Chengdu–Guiyang Railway, the Sichuan–Tibet Railway from Chengdu to Lhasa, the Chengdu–Golmud Railway, and the Chengdu–Xining–Zhangye Railway will be completed successively. According to the Chengdu Railway Hub Master Plan, Chengdu will gradually renovate existing stations like Chengdu Station, Chengdu South Station, and Chengdu West Station.

6.4 Aviation

Chengdu is an important aviation hub city in western China, possessing two international airports: Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport and Chengdu Tianfu International Airport. It is the third city in mainland China, after Shanghai and Beijing, to operate two international airports.

Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport is the busiest civil hub airport, aviation hub, and most important passenger and cargo distribution center in central and western China. It is designated as a national aviation hub by the Civil Aviation Administration of China. Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport is a hub airport for Air China, Sichuan Airlines, Chengdu Airlines, and Tibet Airlines. Additionally, airlines like China Eastern Airlines and Lucky Air have established operational bases at this airport. It is also the largest transit hub for flights to airports in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau region. Currently, Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport's domestic city connectivity is second only to Beijing Capital International Airport, and it offers non-stop direct flights to numerous international destinations in Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, and Oceania. In 2020, the airport handled 40.74 million passengers, 620,000 tons of cargo and mail, and 310,000 aircraft movements. Its passenger throughput ranked second in China and third in the world for the first time.

Due to Chengdu's special status as the "rear area" during the War of Resistance against Japan and the Third Front construction period, multiple airports were built in different eras, making it still the city with the densest concentration of airports in the country. Besides the two 4F-level airports—Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport and Chengdu Tianfu International Airport—Chengdu also has Fenghuangshan Airport, Taipingsi Airport, Xinjin Airport, Wenjiang Airport, Qionglai Airport, and the nearby Guanghan Airport, among others.In January 2015, the State Council and the Central Military Commission officially issued a document approving the construction of Chengdu Tianfu International Airport. Designated as a national-level hub airport, the site is located in Lujia Town, Jianyang City. The current phase of the airport project is designed to meet the targets for 2025, including an annual passenger throughput of 40 million, a cargo and mail throughput of 700,000 tons, and 320,000 aircraft movements, with three new runways to be built. Upon its completion in 2020, Chengdu became the third city on the Chinese mainland, after Beijing and Shanghai, to have two international airports. The airport’s flight zone is rated as 4F, and in addition to the three runways, a 520,000-square-meter terminal building will be constructed. The terminal area of Tianfu International Airport is nearly 1.8 times that of the current Terminal 2 at Shuangliu International Airport. Among the new airports planned and constructed in China in 2015, Tianfu International Airport is second only to Beijing Daxing International Airport in scale, with a total investment of 69.263 billion yuan. On June 27, 2021, Tianfu International Airport officially commenced operations.

In 2023, the Chengdu aviation hub recorded 538,000 aircraft movements, a passenger throughput of 74.924 million, and a cargo and mail throughput of 771,000 tons. Its annual passenger throughput ranked third among Chinese cities.

7. Education

Chengdu is an educational hub in southwestern China, with its overall education level ranking among the top in the country. As early as the reign of Emperor Jing of the Western Han Dynasty, China's first government-run local school—Wenweng Shishi (now Shishi High School)—was established in Chengdu. According to the Book of Han, "By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, it was ordered that all commanderies and states establish official schools, beginning with Wenweng." In 2012, Chengdu had 1,848 kindergartens with 385,000 enrolled children, ranking first among sub-provincial cities nationwide. It also had 1,114 primary and secondary schools with 1.083 million students, ranking second among sub-provincial cities, and 126 regular high schools with 215,000 students, ranking first among sub-provincial cities. Chengdu is home to 11 nationally exemplary regular high schools, 26 provincially exemplary regular high schools, and 32 municipally exemplary regular high schools. Notable high schools in Chengdu include the collectively known "Four-Seven-Nine" schools—Shishi High School (formerly Chengdu No. 4 High School), Chengdu No. 7 High School, and Shude High School (formerly Chengdu No. 9 High School)—as well as Chengdu Foreign Languages School, Chengdu Longquan High School, and Chengdu Experimental Foreign Languages School. Chengdu's primary and secondary schools (including kindergartens) employ 149,000 staff, including 112,000 full-time teachers. However, the proportion of higher education graduates in Chengdu is relatively low, ranking only 26th among provincial capitals and municipalities in the Sixth National Population Census data.

Chengdu is also a major center for higher education in China, with over 60 institutions of higher learning, including 8 Double First-Class national key universities. Notable institutions include Sichuan University, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Southwest Jiaotong University, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu University of Technology, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southwest Minzu University, Sichuan Normal University, Xihua University, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Sichuan Conservatory of Music, Chengdu Sport University, and Chengdu University. Among these, Sichuan University, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Southwest Jiaotong University, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu University of Technology, Southwest Petroleum University, and Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine are all included in China's list of 147 Double First-Class national key universities. Sichuan Normal University, Southwest Minzu University, and Chengdu University of Information Technology are renowned in China for their programs in education, ethnology, and atmospheric sciences, respectively. Sichuan Agricultural University, whose main campus is in Ya'an, Sichuan, also has a campus in Chengdu. Among vocational colleges, Chengdu Aeronautic Polytechnic and Sichuan Post and Telecommunication College are two well-known exemplary vocational institutions in China, both of which train relevant technical non-commissioned officers for the People's Liberation Army. Chengdu also excels in utilizing private capital for education, with notable private institutions including Chengdu Neusoft University and Sichuan City Vocational College.

7. Population

According to statistical data from 2016, Chengdu had a permanent resident population of 15.918 million people. Among them, the urban resident population was 11.241 million, accounting for 70.62%; the rural resident population was approximately 4.677 million, accounting for 29.38%.

According to the Seventh National Population Census in 2020, the city's permanent resident population was 20.9378 million. Compared with the Sixth National Population Census, this represents an increase of 5.8189 million people over ten years, a growth of 38.49%, with an average annual growth rate of 3.31%. Among them, the male population was 10.5226 million, accounting for 50.26%; the female population was 10.4151 million, accounting for 49.74%. The overall sex ratio was 101.03. The population aged 0–14 was 2.7808 million, accounting for 13.28%; the population aged 15–59 was 14.3929 million, accounting for 68.74%; the population aged 60 and above was 3.7641 million, accounting for 17.98%, of which the population aged 65 and above was 2.8512 million, accounting for 13.62%.

At the end of 2022, Chengdu's permanent resident population was 21.268 million, an increase of 76,000 people compared to 2021, representing a growth of 0.4%. The urban permanent resident population was 16.991 million, and the rural permanent resident population was 4.277 million. The urbanization rate of the permanent resident population was 79.89%, an increase of 0.41 percentage points from 2021. The registered household population was 15.716 million.

At the end of 2023, Chengdu's permanent resident population was 21.403 million, an increase of 135,000 people from the end of 2022. The urban permanent resident population was 17.229 million, and the rural permanent resident population was 4.174 million. The urbanization rate of the permanent resident population was 80.5%, an increase of 0.61 percentage points from the end of 2022. The registered household population was 15.982 million, an increase of 267,000 people from 2022.

7.1 Ethnic Groups

The ethnic composition of Chengdu is predominantly Han Chinese of the Ba-Shu subgroup, accounting for 99.1% of the city's total population. Chengdu is home to 55 ethnic minority groups. Ethnic groups with populations exceeding one thousand include: Hui, Tibetan, Manchu, Qiang, Mongol, Tujia, Yi, Miao, Zhuang, and Korean, among which the Hui and Tibetan populations each exceed ten thousand. Among the city's permanent resident population, the Han population is 20,548,248, accounting for 98.14%; the total population of various ethnic minorities is 389,509, accounting for 1.86%. Compared with the 2010 Sixth National Population Census, the Han population increased by 5,557,139, a growth of 37.07%, with its proportion of the total population decreasing by 1.02 percentage points; the total population of ethnic minorities increased by 261,779, a growth of 204.95%, with its proportion of the total population increasing by 1.02 percentage points.

7.2 Population Origins

Chengdu is a typical immigrant city, having historically undergone several major waves of migration. The largest and most impactful of these occurred five times.

The first major migration occurred after the Qin state conquered the states of Ba and Shu and unified the six warring states. The Qin king relocated nobles, wealthy merchants, and prisoners from the six conquered states to the Shu region, a process that lasted nearly a century. The second major migration occurred during the Three Kingdoms period after Liu Bei entered Shu. The third major migration consisted of two movements during the late Yuan/early Ming and late Ming/early Qing dynasties, known as the "Huguang Filling Sichuan" migrations. According to statistics on Chengdu's population composition in the late Qing dynasty work Chengdu Overview, "Current Chengdu residents are all originally from other provinces." Among them, Huguang (modern Hubei and Hunan) accounted for 25%; Henan and Shandong, 5%; Shaanxi, 10%; Yunnan and Guizhou, 15%; Jiangxi, 15%; Anhui, 5%; Jiangsu and Zhejiang, 10%; Guangdong and Guangxi, 10%; Fujian, Shanxi, and Gansu, 5%.

The fourth major migration occurred during the War of Resistance against Japan, when a large number of people relocated with the Nationalist government to the strategic rear area of Sichuan, with Chengdu being a key settlement node. The fifth major migration occurred after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, due to the "Third Front Construction" initiative. A large number of workers, technical experts, scholars, and party and government cadres moved to Chengdu from eastern regions. This included the Second Field Army's Southwest Service Corps and military dependents, a large number of Shanxi-origin military dependents from the 18th Corps, and hundreds of thousands of cadres, engineers, skilled workers, and their families from Shanghai and Liaoning. Currently, among the registered household population in Chengdu's five central urban districts and the High-Tech Zone, those of Shanghai and Northeast China origin account for over half, forming the main body of the population in Chengdu's central urban area and directly influencing changes in the dialect spoken there. The former "Eastern Suburbs" industrial area of Chengdu was essentially dominated by people from Shanghai and Northeast China. After the reform and opening-up, Chengdu's rapid industrialization and urbanization attracted a large influx of rural population into the city. The spirit of "Harmony and Inclusiveness" within Chengdu's city ethos is a full embodiment of this immigrant culture.

8. Religion

Currently, Chengdu has 5 city-wide religious groups, 31 county-level religious groups, 187 approved and open religious activity sites, 1,386 registered religious clergy, and over one million religious believers.

Chengdu's folk traditional beliefs blend the faiths of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, with the most important folk belief being the Chuanzhu faith. Chuanzhu is deified from Li Bing, the governor of Qin's Shu Commandery who constructed the Dujiangyan irrigation system, benefiting the Shu region for thousands of years, and is considered the local guardian deity of the Ba-Shu area. The Qingming Water Release Festival held annually at Dujiangyan inherits the official tradition of worshipping Chuanzhu that began in the Northern Song Dynasty. While cutting the mamacha to release water into the inner river for spring irrigation in the Chengdu Plain, Li Bing and his son are also honored. Notable Chuanzhu temples in Chengdu include the Two Kings Temple, Fulong Temple, and Xinchang Chuanwang Palace.

Well-known Buddhist temples in Chengdu include Baoguang Temple, Wenshu Monastery, Daci Temple, Shijing Temple, and Zhaojue Temple. Chengdu is the birthplace of Taoism. During the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Daoling founded the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice at Heming Mountain in Chengdu. Famous Taoist sites include the renowned Taoist mountains Heming Mountain and Qingcheng Mountain, as well as Qingyang Palace.

Christianity has a long history of introduction into Chengdu. In the ninth year of the Zhenguan era of the Tang Dynasty (635 AD), the Eastern Church, a branch of Syrian Christianity (historically misnamed as Nestorianism), first entered China and was called "Jingjiao." Chengdu also had a considerable number of followers. During the Tang Dynasty, a Jingjiao Daqin Temple, known as the Pearl Tower, was built in Chengdu. Later, Catholicism was introduced to Chengdu in the late Ming Dynasty, and Protestantism in the late Qing Dynasty. With the spread of Catholicism and Protestantism in the Chengdu area, churches were established in various places. The most well-known Protestant churches include the Sishengci Chapel (originally Methodist), Shangxiang Church (originally the cathedral of the Anglican West Sichuan Diocese), and the YMCA on Jinhuaguan, Chunxi Road. The most famous Catholic churches include the Ping'anqiao Cathedral (Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception) on Xihuamen Street, Zhangjiaxiang Catholic Church, and the Lingbao Seminary in Bailu Town, Pengzhou. The Ping'anqiao Cathedral is also the cathedral of the Catholic Diocese of Chengdu. Chengdu has two officially recognized seminaries run by patriotic associations: the Protestant Sichuan Theological Seminary and the Catholic Sichuan Catholic Seminary of Philosophy and Theology. Outside of government-recognized groups, Protestant underground churches in Chengdu are also quite active. The Autumn Rain Covenant Church, considered one of the most famous Protestant house churches in mainland China, is located in the city.

Islam has been spreading in Chengdu for nearly a thousand years. The most famous mosques are the Huangcheng Mosque (English: Chengdu Huangcheng Mosque) (originally built in the 16th century) and the Gulou Mosque (originally built in the 14th century).

• Taoist mountain Qingcheng Mountain
• Taoist mountain Qingcheng Mountain
• Wenshu Pavilion at Chengdu Wenshu Monastery
• Wenshu Pavilion at Chengdu Wenshu Monastery
• Chengdu YMCA on Jinhuaguan, Chunxi Road
• Chengdu YMCA on Jinhuaguan, Chunxi Road
• Ping'anqiao Cathedral, originally named the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception
• Ping'anqiao Cathedral, originally named the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception
• Shangxiang Church, originally named St. John's Church
• Shangxiang Church, originally named St. John's Church
• Sishengci Chapel
• Sishengci Chapel

9. Culture

Chengdu's historically relatively isolated geographical environment fostered a unique local culture. With economic development and the broadening of citizens' horizons, this situation is undergoing rapid change. Chengdu boasts numerous teahouses and mahjong parlors; spending time in teahouses and playing Chengdu-style mahjong are deeply cherished leisure activities among its residents. The laid-back and pleasure-seeking lifestyle of Chengdu people has contributed to the city's well-developed service industry. In terms of urban comparison, Chengdu's GDP ranked 8th nationally (2014), yet it held the 5th highest retail sales in the catering industry and box office revenue for films, the 3rd highest number of private cars, and the highest number of bars in the country.

Chengdu culture blends tradition with modernity. Many historical figures have left behind an enduring spiritual and cultural legacy for future generations in Chengdu, such as Sima Xiangru, Li Bai, Su Shi, Zhuge Liang, Du Fu, Xue Tao, and Li Bing. Modern figures like Ba Jin, Li Jieren, Ai Wu, and Sha Ting led the way for the New Culture Movement. In popular culture, singers like Li Yuchun, Zhang Liangying, Zhang Jie, and Higher Brothers hail from Chengdu. Singer Zhao Lei, drawing from his experiences in Chengdu, created the song "Chengdu" which became an instant hit. The Chengdu-produced animated film "Ne Zha" (2019) remains the highest-grossing Chinese animated film to date, with a box office exceeding 5 billion yuan.

9.1 Cuisine

Chengdu's cuisine and food culture are highly renowned both in China and internationally. Sichuan cuisine, hot pot, and more common fare like chuanchuanxiang (locally often called "chuanchuan") and lengdanbei are all immensely popular in Chengdu. Together with its famous variety of snacks, they form Chengdu's unique culinary culture. Notable Chengdu restaurants include Shizilou, Huangcheng Laoma, Rongleyuan, Daijiang Caotang, Yinxing Restaurant, Nulican, Xiaotan Douhua, Laoma Tihua, and Mingting Restaurant. In February 2010, UNESCO approved Chengdu's inclusion in the Creative Cities Network, granting it the title of "City of Gastronomy," making it the second city worldwide and the first in Asia to receive this honor.

9.1.1 Chengdu Snacks

Chengdu snacks refer to the collective term for various local snacks with strong Chengdu characteristics. They have a long history and a vast variety, enjoying high renown similar to Sichuan cuisine. Chengdu snacks offer a wide range of flavors. Famous examples include: Dan Dan Noodles, Husband and Wife Lung Slices, Eight-Treasure Porridge, Zhong Dumplings, Long Wontons, Han Steamed Buns, Lai Glutinous Rice Balls, Bai Family Rice Noodles with Pork Intestines, Pansunshi Braised Delicacies, Sanheni (a sweet paste), Red Star Rabbit Dices, Liao Spare Ribs, Maocai (a type of spicy stew), Hot and Sour Sweet Potato Noodles, Yerbaba (glutinous rice cakes), Spicy and Sour Tofu Pudding, Egg Pancakes, and Three Big Cannons.

9.1.2 Rabbit

After the 1950s, Chengdu concentrated a large number of rabbit farms, meat processing plants, etc., which made Chengdu's rabbit meat cuisine culture uniquely prominent. Especially after the reform and opening-up, many local specialty rabbit dishes emerged, such as Red Oil Rabbit Dices, Laoma Rabbit Head, Braised Rabbit, and Hot Pot Rabbit. According to statistics from the Rabbit Industry Branch of the China Animal Agriculture Association, Sichuan sold nearly 300 million rabbits in 2016, with Chengdu accounting for 90% of that. According to the Hongcan Brand Research Institute, in Chengdu, Sichuan, there are nearly 5,000 restaurants themed around rabbit meat or selling dishes containing rabbit meat. On April 10, 2023, "Traditional Pickling and Braising Techniques (Shuangliu Laoma Rabbit Head Braising Technique)" was included in the "Sixth Batch of Representative Items of Sichuan Provincial Intangible Cultural Heritage List."

9.1.3 Sichuan Cuisine and Hot Pot

Chengdu is one of the main birthplaces of Sichuan cuisine. Chengdu-style Sichuan cuisine (also known as Rongpai or Shanghebang Sichuan cuisine) is one of the three major representative schools of Sichuan cuisine. Compared to Chongqing-style Sichuan cuisine (also known as Yupai or Xiahebang Sichuan cuisine), Chengdu-style is more refined, uses more exquisite ingredients, pays greater attention to appearance, and has a milder flavor. Some famous home-style dishes originating from Chengdu include Mapo Tofu, Kung Pao Chicken, and Twice-Cooked Pork. Among them, the pinnacle dish of Sichuan cuisine, "Boiled Cabbage in Supreme Soup," was created by a Chengdu-born chef. Chengdu hot pot, which uses carefully selected broth as its base, has a long history, described as early as the Western Jin Dynasty by writer Zuo Si in his "Ode to the Capital of Shu." Chengdu hot pot is also an important school of hot pot. Representatives include Shizilou, Huangcheng Laoma, Damiao Hot Pot, and Shujiuxiang. New-style hot pot chains like Jincheng Impression and Mala Space Hot Pot are highly praised by citizens. Moreover, Chengdu hot pot is gradually diversifying; besides traditional hot pot, new varieties like beef offal hot pot and seafood soup pot have emerged. Representative dishes of Sichuan cuisine include: Fish-Flavored Shredded Pork, Kung Pao Chicken, Mapo Tofu, Twice-Cooked Pork, Boiled Sliced Pork in Chili Sauce, Shao Bai (steamed pork with preserved vegetables), Ants Climbing a Tree, Dengying Beef Slices, Garlic Paste White Meat, Camphor and Tea Smoked Duck, Strange Flavor Chicken, Steamed Beef with Rice Flour, Tripe Hot Pot, Jar Meat, and Dry-Fried Eel Slices.

7.2 Tourism

Chengdu is rich in tourism resources and is a well-known tourist city, boasting numerous historical sites and cultural landscapes such as the Wuhou Shrine, Du Fu Thatched Cottage, Yongling Mausoleum of the Former Shu, Wangjiang Tower, Qingyang Palace, Wenshu Monastery, Ming Shu Prince Tombs, and Zhaojue Temple. Chengdu possesses two World Heritage sites: the World Cultural Heritage Dujiangyan Irrigation System and Mount Qingcheng, and the World Natural Heritage Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries. The Chengdu portion of the Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries includes four nature reserves: Dujiangyan–Mount Qingcheng, Xiling Snow Mountain, Tiantai Mountain, and Jiguan Mountain–Jiulonggou. Both Chengdu City and the county-level city of Dujiangyan under its administration are National Famous Historical and Cultural Cities, with many scenic spots and historical sites, including 41 Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level and over 200 provincial and municipal-level protected sites. Chengdu has 14 national-level intangible cultural heritage items such as Shu Embroidery, Shu Brocade Weaving Techniques, Chengdu Lacquerware Art, and Chengdu Silver Filigree Art; 4 national-level scenic areas; and 7 National Famous Historical and Cultural Towns (e.g., Pingle Town in Qionglai, Anren Town in Dayi, Huanglongxi Town in Shuangliu). The Chengdu OCT Happy Valley Theme Park opened in January 2009.

Chengdu City and the county-level cities of Dujiangyan, Chongzhou, and Qionglai under its administration are all China's Excellent Tourism Cities. In 2007, the China National Tourism Administration and the World Tourism Organization awarded Chengdu the title of "China's Best Tourism City," making it one of the first three cities in China to receive this honor. In 2009, the World Centre of Excellence for Destinations officially granted Chengdu the title of "World Centre of Excellence for Destinations," making it the first city in Asia to receive this distinction.

7.3 Giant Panda

In 1961, at the founding of the World Wildlife Fund (now WWF), representatives from various countries unanimously chose the giant panda as the emblem and flag for this international organization. The Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding in China is an ecological breeding and research base established to protect and rescue the endangered giant panda species. It is also the only giant panda breeding research base in the world located within a major city. The base covers 36.5 hectares and has a fully equipped research center, modern delivery rooms, a veterinary hospital, and a giant panda museum. As of 2015, the base and Chengdu Zoo had artificially bred 143 litters of giant pandas, producing 214 cubs, with 152 surviving. To further protect giant pandas, a 150-hectare semi-wild enclosure called "Panda Valley," simulating the panda's natural habitat, has been established. For its outstanding contributions to saving and protecting giant pandas, the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding has received honors including the "Global 500" award from the United Nations Environment Programme, China's top environmental award "China Green Science and Technology Award," "National Excellent Project for Comprehensive Environmental Improvement," and "National Popular Science Education Base."

7.4 Traditional Festivals

Chengdu has a rich variety of folk festivals, including traditional Chinese holidays like the Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, and Double Ninth Festival. Among them, the most traditional and vibrant festivals are the Chengdu Lantern Festival, Chengdu Flower Festival, Longquan Peach Blossom Festival, Pixian Wangcong Temple Song Competition, and the Dujiangyan Water Releasing Festival. "You Xishen Fang" (Visiting the Direction of the God of Joy) is a Chengdu folk custom formed in the mid-to-late Qing Dynasty, with a history of over 200 years. Shu Han heroes like Liu Bei, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei, and Zhuge Liang are regarded as gods of loyalty, righteousness, wealth, and wisdom, collectively called the "Gods of Joy"; "Xishen Fang" refers to the direction where these gods reside. The Dujiangyan Water Releasing Festival is a folk custom in Dujiangyan City. On Qingming Festival, to celebrate the completion of the annual maintenance of the Dujiangyan irrigation system and the start of the spring ploughing season, grand ceremonies are held. The main public ritual involves paying homage at the Two Kings Temple, offering sacrifices to Li Bing and his son, and praying for a bountiful harvest. The most important activity of the festival is the "water opening" ceremony at the Yuzui (Fish Mouth) water-dividing project of Dujiangyan, where bamboo ropes connecting the temporary dams (macha) are cut, allowing water from the outer river to flow into the newly maintained inner river.

7.5 Dialect

The dialect of Chengdu's central urban area is Chengdu dialect, belonging to the Chengyu subgroup of the Chuanqian cluster of Southwestern Mandarin. It is one of the representative dialects of Sichuanese and Southwestern Mandarin. It is also the standard pronunciation for Sichuan opera and other forms of Quyi (Chinese folk performing arts) in the Sichuan region. Apart from the central urban area, Longquanyi District, Jintang County, and Jianyang City, whose dialects belong to the Chengyu subgroup, the dialects of other districts and counties in Chengdu belong to the Minchi subgroup of Southwestern Mandarin. These dialects retain the entering tone (rusheng) from ancient Chinese and are remnants of the indigenous Sichuan dialects from before the late Yuan Dynasty. Additionally, in the hilly eastern areas of Chengdu, there are scattered users of small local dialects like Tuguangdonghua and Laohuguanghua. With the increase in immigrants from outside the Sichuan-Chongqing region, other non-local dialects, including Standard Mandarin (Putonghua), are also widely used in Chengdu. Many people also master "Sichuan-flavored Mandarin" (Jiaoyan Putonghua or Chuanpu), which is essentially Chengdu dialect spoken with Putonghua tones, but it is typically used for humorous banter with others.Chengdu is one of China's central cities for dialect preservation and among the earliest to propose and implement dialect protection initiatives. Despite the nationwide trend of promoting Mandarin, Chengdu dialect remains widely used as the local mainstream language. The Chengdu Municipal Education Bureau has strengthened dialect preservation in kindergartens and primary schools, making Chengdu one of the few cities in China where educational authorities lead dialect conservation efforts. In Sichuan’s universities, both Chengdu dialect and Mandarin serve as mainstream languages for communication. Institutions such as Sichuan University, Sichuan Normal University, and the Aviation Tourism Vocational College offer specialized Sichuan dialect courses for non-local students to facilitate their learning. In 2018, the Sichuan dialect book Sichuan Dialect Encyclopedia was included in Sichuan’s local chronicles, a pioneering move nationwide. In 2020, Chengdu dialect was listed among the first dialects to be protected by Alibaba Cloud’s Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.

Local radio and television stations in Chengdu feature numerous dialect programs. According to surveys, dialect programs account for 1/40 of all programs on Chengdu television stations, with an even higher proportion on radio stations. Although some pronunciations and vocabulary have been influenced by Mandarin, Chengdu dialect remains simple to learn and easy to speak, making it one of the few dialects in China experiencing growth in both speaker numbers and geographic usage. Sichuan dialect holds a certain influence in Chinese popular culture, particularly in hip-hop music. Comedian Li Boqing is regarded as a spokesperson for Chengdu dialect. Since 2010, the music label "Rap House" (renamed "Chengdu Group" in 2020) and associated figures such as Xie Di and Higher Brothers have become significant forces in Chinese hip-hop music.

7.6 Media

Chengdu’s media is renowned across China for its civic-oriented approach. For instance, newspapers like Chengdu Business Daily and West China Metropolis Daily have the highest circulation in Chengdu and are nationally known for their civic and even secular characteristics. Another feature of Chengdu’s media landscape is the rivalry between provincial (newspaper/station) and municipal (newspaper/station) outlets. Since 1991, Chengdu has hosted the China Sichuan International Television Festival biennially. Some nationally circulated publications based in Chengdu include Science Fiction World and Movie View. Among these, Science Fiction World gained nationwide fame in 1999 due to the national college entrance exam essay topic "If Memories Could Be Transplanted." Chengdu has also achieved notable success in utilizing new media. In 2010, the city was among the early adopters of microblogging services in China. Its municipal microblog account, "Chengdu Release," now boasts over 10 million followers and was once hailed as "China’s Top Government Affairs Microblog."

8. Sister Cities

In 1979, Chengdu established a sister-city relationship with Montpellier, France, marking the first such pairing between China and France. Since then, Chengdu has gone on to form sister-city ties with 37 foreign cities and has established international friendly cooperative relations with 67 other foreign cities. Chengdu maintains frequent exchanges with these friendly cities. Taking Montpellier as an example, the city now features a "Chengdu Street" and a "Chengdu Square." Additionally, the county-level cities of Dujiangyan and Pengzhou have four and one sister cities, respectively.

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Wuhou District

Shuangliu District

The Han ethnic group accounts for 98.14% of the population; ethnic minorities account for 1.86%.

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