Beijing (北京)

1. Introduction

Beijing, officially the Beijing Municipality, abbreviated as "Jing", formerly known as "Beiping", is the capital and a municipality directly under the central government of the People's Republic of China. It serves as the nation's political, cultural, technological, educational, military, and international exchange center. Beijing is a global city, ranking as the world's third most populous city and the most populous national capital. Located on the northern edge of the North China Plain, backed by the Yanshan Mountains, with the Yongding River flowing southwest of the old city, Beijing borders Tianjin Municipality and Hebei Province, forming a crucial part of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration.

Beijing is an ancient capital of China, a famous historical and cultural city with over 3,000 years of history as a city and more than 860 years as a capital. It served as the capital for five dynasties: the Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. Beijing embodies modern Chinese culture since the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, boasting numerous historical sites, cultural landscapes, and eight UNESCO World Heritage sites—the most of any city in the world. Notable landmarks include the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven, the Summer Palace, the Old Summer Palace, and Beihai Park. Hutongs (narrow alleys) and siheyuans (traditional courtyard residences), typical of old Beijing, are significant cultural symbols of the city's history. Beijing is a major tourist destination in China, rated as a "Three-Star Tourist Destination" (the highest level) by the Michelin Travel Guide. The Municipal People's Government is located at No. 57 Yunhedong Street, Tongzhou District.

Beijing holds significant influence in mainland China's politics, economy, trade, culture, education, and technology. It hosts the headquarters of the vast majority of China's state-owned enterprises and has the highest number of Fortune Global 500 company headquarters in the world. The Beijing Central Business District (CBD) is home to a large concentration of international financial and commercial office facilities and skyscrapers, while the Zhongguancun area is a hub for mainland China's important high-tech industries. Beijing is a pivotal city for railway and highway transportation in mainland China, featuring two major hub airports with the highest flight area classification (4F): Beijing Capital International Airport and Beijing Daxing International Airport. The Beijing Subway is the world's second-longest and busiest urban rail transit system by passenger volume. Beijing has the highest number of higher education institutions in mainland China, with Peking University and Tsinghua University, both located in Beijing, regarded as representatives of China's top universities. Beijing plays a crucial and leading role in global political, economic, and social activities. It ranks 6th in the GaWC World City Rankings, second only to Hong Kong and Shanghai among Chinese cities. Beijing is classified as an Alpha+ (World First-Tier) city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC). A United Nations report indicates that Beijing's Human Development Index ranks second among Chinese cities. Beijing is also the world's only "Dual Olympic City," having hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympic Games.

The Beijing City Master Plan (2016–2035) positions Beijing as the "National Political Center, Cultural Center, International Exchange Center, and Scientific and Technological Innovation Center," with plans to strengthen the development of these "Four Centers." In the process of rapid development, Beijing has faced a series of "urban ailments." Considering the issues of insufficient and unbalanced development in China's economy, Beijing has innovatively become the first city in China to pursue "reduction-oriented development." It has begun to relocate non-capital functions from the central urban area, moving units that do not align with the "Four Centers" out of the core area, supporting the planning and construction of the Xiongan New Area in Hebei, and planning and constructing the Beijing Municipal Administrative Center at a high level.

2. Historical Names

It has been successively known as Jicheng, Yan Shangdu, Yanjing, Jixian, Guangyang Commandery, Guangyang Kingdom, Youzhou, Yan Kingdom, Yan Commandery, Zhuojun, Dadu, Fanyang, Lulong, Nanjing Youdu Prefecture, Nanjing Xijin Prefecture, Yanshan Circuit, Zhongdu Daxing Prefecture, Zhongdu Circuit, Daxing Prefecture, Beiping Prefecture, Beijing, Jingshi, Shuntian Prefecture, Jingzhao Region, Beiping Special Municipality, among others. It also has alternative names such as Imperial Capital, Capital City, Kyoto, Capital Region, and Jingzhao.

3. History

3.1 Prehistoric Period

Between 600,000 and 20,000 years ago, the Beijing area was in the Paleolithic Age. Typical sites from this era, such as those of the early Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis), the mid-period Xindong Man, and the late-period Upper Cave Man, were discovered at Zhoukoudian. The Beijing region entered the Neolithic Age no later than 10,000 years ago. During this time, human settlement patterns became fixed, gradually moving out of caves to settle in the plains.

3.2 Pre-Qin to the Five Dynasties Period

Beijing's history as a city can be traced back 3,000 years. In the early Western Zhou Dynasty, King Wu of Zhou enfeoffed the Duke of Shao to the State of Yan. The early capital of Yan was located at the present-day Liuli River site in Fangshan District. Some scholars regard the ancient city of Liulihe as the origin of Beijing. According to Records of the Grand Historian, King Wu of Zhou enfeoffed a descendant of Emperor Yao to establish the State of Ji, with its capital at Ji. During the Spring and Autumn period, Yan conquered Ji and moved its capital there. The exact location of Ji City remains debated. Li Daoyuan's Commentary on the Water Classic suggests Ji City was located in present-day Beijing. Starting in the 1950s, a large number of pottery wells from the Spring and Autumn period to the Western Han Dynasty were discovered during construction projects in the area from Xuanwumen to Hepingmen in Beijing. Based on this, scholars believe Ji City was located in this area and consider it the origin of Beijing. However, no Western Zhou-era remains have been found in this region, so the location of Ji City during the Western Zhou period remains unknown.

In 222 BC, after the Qin state conquered Yan, it established Beijing as Ji County, the seat of Guangyang Commandery. In the first year of the Yuanfeng era of the Han Dynasty (80 BC), Ji County of Guangyang Commandery came under the jurisdiction of Youzhou. In the first year of the Benshi era (73 BC), it was renamed the capital of Guangyang Kingdom. During the reforms of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han, the Inspectorate of Youzhou was established at Ji County. In the eighth year of the Yongyuan era (96 AD), it was restored as the seat of Guangyang Commandery. During the Western Jin Dynasty, the court changed Guangyang Commandery to the State of Yan, while the administrative seat of Youzhou was moved to Fanyang. During the Later Zhao of the Sixteen Kingdoms period, the seat of Youzhou was moved back to Ji County, and the State of Yan was re-established as Yan Commandery. This administrative status remained unchanged through the rule of Former Yan, Former Qin, Northern Yan, Later Yan, and Northern Wei.

In the third year of the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty (583 AD), Yan Commandery was abolished. However, soon after, in the third year of the Daye era (607 AD), the Sui Dynasty changed Youzhou to Zhuo Commandery. During the Wude era of the Tang Dynasty, Zhuo Commandery was renamed back to Youzhou. In the first year of the Zhenguan era (627 AD), Youzhou was placed under the Hebei Circuit surveillance area. Later, Beijing became the garrison of the Fanyang Military Commissioner. During the An Lushan Rebellion, the mixed-ethnic rebel An Lushan declared himself emperor at Fanyang (near present-day Beijing and Baoding), founding the "Great Yan" state. After the Tang suppressed the rebellion, Youzhou was re-established and placed under the control of the Lulong Military Commissioner. In the early Five Dynasties period, the warlord Liu Rengong controlled this area. Later, his son Liu Shouguang declared himself the Prince of Yan but was eliminated by the Later Tang. Shi Jingtang, a Shatuo Turk and founder of the Later Jin, surrendered to the Khitans to defeat the Later Tang. In the first year of the Tianfu era of the Later Jin (936 AD), he ceded the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun, including present-day Beijing, to the Khitans and declared himself a "son emperor" to them. Shi Jingtang's cession of the Sixteen Prefectures opened the door for later threats from the Liao or Jin dynasties against the Later Han, Later Zhou, and Song dynasties.

3.3 Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan Periods

In the early Northern Song Dynasty, Emperor Taizong of Song fought the Liao at the Gaoliang River (in present-day Haidian District, Beijing) in an unsuccessful attempt to recover the Sixteen Prefectures. Starting in the first year of the Huitong era (938 AD), the Liao Dynasty established a secondary capital in the Beijing area, called Nanjing Youdu Prefecture; it was renamed Xijin Prefecture in the first year of the Kaitai era (1012 AD). In the late Northern Song, after the Song allied with the Jin to destroy the Liao and recovered the Sixteen Prefectures, they established the Yanshanfu and Yunzhongfu circuits. Beijing belonged to the Yanshanfu Circuit. Using the Zhang Jue incident as a pretext, the Jin Dynasty launched a large-scale attack on the Song and again captured Yanshanfu. In the first year of the Zhenyuan era of the Jin Dynasty (1153 AD), Wanyan Liang officially moved the capital to Beijing, changing Yanjing to Shengdu (Holy Capital), and soon after to Zhongdu Daxing Prefecture. This marked the first time in history that Beijing became the capital of China, beginning a capital history that now spans over 800 years. The construction of Jin Zhongdu made Beijing the most prosperous commercial metropolis in the world at the time, with a population exceeding one million. The city was home to numerous ethnic groups, and various Eastern and Western cultures exchanged and integrated here, establishing Beijing as an international city. Wanyan Liang opened the Lu River east of Zhongdu, leading to the renaming of Lucheng to Tongzhou. To the west, the Lugou Bridge (Marco Polo Bridge) was built, allowing goods from the southwestern land routes to enter Zhongdu directly. The Jin Dynasty also pioneered the use of canal transport to ship grain to the capital.

Starting from the fifth lunar month of 1214 to the fifth lunar month of 1215, Muqali, a general under Genghis Khan of the Mongol Empire, besieged Jin Zhongdu for nearly a year before capturing it. After the city fell, a month-long massacre ensued, claiming over a million lives, and the city was set ablaze, nearly destroying it completely. Yuan Haogu, the elder brother of the famous Jin Dynasty poet Yuan Haowen, also perished in the massacre. After Kublai Khan ascended the throne in 1260, he decided to base his rule on Han Chinese territory and designated Yanjing as the capital. In the first year of the Zhiyuan era (1264 AD), it was renamed Zhongdu Daxing Prefecture. In the ninth year of the Zhiyuan era (1272 AD), Zhongdu Daxing Prefecture was officially renamed Dadu (Great Capital).

3.4 Ming Dynasty

In the early Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang made Jinling Yingtian Prefecture (present-day Nanjing) the capital. Dadu was recaptured by Ming forces in the eighth month of the first year of the Hongwu era (1368 AD) and renamed Beiping Prefecture. In the tenth month of the same year, it was placed under Shandong Province for military needs. In the third month of the second year of Hongwu (1369 AD), it became the seat of the Beiping Provincial Administration Commission. After the Prince of Yan, Zhu Di, seized the throne through the Jingnan Campaign, he elevated Yanjing Beiping to Beijing in the first year of the Yongle era (1402 AD), temporarily calling it the "Xingzai" (the emperor's temporary residence or traveling palace). He often resided there during northern campaigns, and the name Beijing (Northern Capital) dates from this time. After Zhu Di made Beijing his base, he transformed the city's condition from its Yuan-era state; order was restored, and prosperity and peace followed. In the first month of the nineteenth year of Yongle (1421 AD), the Yongle Emperor Zhu Di formally moved the capital to Yanjing, making it the capital, called "Beijing." Jinling Yingtian Prefecture remained as the secondary capital, called Nanjing. During the reigns of the Hongxi and Xuande Emperors, due to the emperors' personal preferences, Beijing's status as the capital was temporarily downgraded to a traveling palace ("Xingzai"), and Jinling Yingtian Prefecture was again called the capital, Nanjing. After the Zhengtong Emperor assumed personal rule, Beijing's status as the capital was restored in the seventh year of the Zhengtong era (1442 AD).

On May 30, 1626, the Wanggongchang Armory in the southwest corner of Beijing experienced the great Wanggongchang explosion, causing over 20,000 casualties. The cause remains unknown, shocking the court, the public, and foreign observers. The Tianqi Emperor issued an edict of self-reproach, expressing deep remorse and admonishing all officials to "exert their minds, cleanse their hearts in service, and engage in profound reflection." He also ordered the disbursement of ten thousand taels of gold from the treasury for disaster relief. In 1643, a major outbreak of the late Ming rat plague occurred within Beijing, resulting in over 200,000 deaths, considered one of the significant factors leading to the fall of the Ming Dynasty.

3.5 Qing Dynasty

On April 25, 1644, Li Zicheng captured Beijing. The Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on Coal Hill (Jingshan), marking the end of the Ming Dynasty. After the Qing Shunzhi Emperor entered Shanhai Pass, he moved the capital to Beijing, also called the capital Shuntian Prefecture, which was part of Zhili Province. The Qing court implemented a policy of segregation between the Bannermen and civilians in Beijing: the Manchu, Han, and Mongol Eight Banners lived in the Inner City, while non-Banner Han Chinese and Hui Muslims lived in the Outer City. Banner affairs were managed by the Nine Gates Infantry Commander, while Han and Hui affairs were handled by the Shuntian Prefecture government.

On August 28, 1853, after the Taiping Army captured Linmingguan, a large portion of Beijing's population fled. The city was placed under martial law, panic spread, prices soared, and chaos ensued.

On September 21, 1860, Anglo-French forces defeated Qing troops at the Battle of Baliqiao, subsequently breached Beijing, and set fire to the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan). The Xianfeng Emperor fled to Chengde. From October to November, the Qing government signed the Convention of Peking with Britain, France, and Russia at the Board of Rites. Foreign diplomats and Christian missionaries were granted permission to reside in Beijing, building churches throughout the city, while legations were concentrated in the Dongjiaominxiang area. In 1888, Beijing's first railway, the Xiyuan Railway, was built in Zhongnanhai. However, this railway was not for public service and was dismantled in 1925. Subsequently, Beijing's first public railway was the Tianjin-Lugouqiao Railway, opened in 1897.

In June 1900, the Boxers entered Beijing, burning churches within the city and besieging foreign legations. In August, the Eight-Nation Alliance captured Beijing, rescuing the besieged foreign ministers. In August 1901, the Eight-Nation Alliance withdrew from Beijing. On September 7, the Qing government signed the Boxer Protocol with Western powers. That same year, railway openings were made in the city walls at Xibianmen and Dongbianmen, marking the earliest modifications to the Beijing city walls. In January 1902, Empress Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor returned to Beijing and issued an edict of self-reproach. In 1909, the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway, connecting Beijing to Zhangjiakou, was completed and opened under the direction of Zhan Tianyou. On March 30, 1911, Tsinghua University was founded.

3.6 Republic of China to Early People's Republic Period

On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established in Nanjing, and the capital was moved to Beijing in March of the same year. At the beginning of the Republic, Beijing continued to be called Shuntian Prefecture according to the Qing system. In 1913, the Beiyang Government established the Capital Police Department. In June 1914, the Capital Municipal Administration Office was established near Xinhua Gate. Both were jointly responsible for local municipal affairs. In October of the same year, the Jingzhao administrative area was established. In January 1918, the urban area of Jingzhao was officially named the Capital City (Jingshi). During this period, Beijing built a tram system and a number of modern cultural and educational institutions. The walls of the Imperial City were gradually dismantled, but the Inner and Outer Cities were only partially modified. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement erupted in Beijing over the Shandong issue, with students burning down Cao Rulin's residence. On May 7, 1920, Beijing Nanyuan Airport opened Beijing's first civil aviation route. After the Northern Expedition in 1928, the capital of the Republic of China was moved back to Nanjing, and the Jingzhao area was renamed the Beiping Special Municipality. In June 1930, Beiping was downgraded to a city under Hebei Province, but in December of the same year, it was restored to a municipality directly under the Executive Yuan. During this period, although Beijing lacked capital status, it maintained a key advantage in education and was called "the Boston of China" by international observers. After the July 7 Incident of 1937, Beiping was occupied by Japanese forces and renamed Beijing. In 1945, Japan announced its surrender to the Allies, ending the Second Sino-Japanese War. On August 21 of the same year, forces under Sun Lianzhong of the 11th War Area took over Beijing and renamed it Beiping.On January 31, 1949, Beiping was peacefully liberated. On September 27 of the same year, the capital of the People's Republic of China was designated as Beiping, and its name was restored to Beijing. On October 1, 1949, the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Beijing. Since then, multiple military parades have been held.

3.7 Modern Development

On July 22, 1982, Beijing formulated the "Beijing Urban Construction Master Plan," which clearly defined Beijing's role as the "political and cultural center of the nation." Approved in 1983, this plan led to rapid urban development in Beijing, shifting away from the previous mindset of "emphasizing production over living standards."

In 1987, Beijing proposed the strategy of "opening up the two wings to relieve the central area," initiating large-scale urban road construction. The following year, the Beijing New Technology Industry Development Experimental Zone was established in Zhongguancun.

In 1990, Beijing successfully hosted the 11th Asian Games. In 1991, the city began its bid to host the 2000 Summer Olympics but lost to Sydney by two votes in September 1993. On July 10, 1992, the then-planned Yizhuang Industrial Zone was renamed the Beijing Economic-Technological Development Area.

In October 1993, the "Beijing Urban Master Plan (1991–2010)" was approved by the State Council.

In 1995, Beijing hosted the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, adopting the "Beijing Declaration" and the "Platform for Action." That same year, Beijing implemented a five-day workweek. On May 8, 1996, Beijing's telephone numbers were upgraded from seven to eight digits.

On November 25, 1998, Beijing officially launched its bid to host the 2008 Summer Olympics.

In June 1999, renowned architects I. M. Pei, Wu Liangyong, Zhou Ganzhi, Zhang Kaiji, Hua Lanhong, Zheng Xiaoxie, Luo Zhewen, and Ruan Yisan jointly submitted a proposal titled "Protecting Beijing's Historical and Cultural City with Caution Amid Rapid Development" to the Beijing Municipal Government. They emphasized the need to follow the objective laws of protecting and developing historical and cultural cities, advocating for active and cautious preservation and improvement of Beijing's old city rather than "accelerated transformation." They recommended drafting a legally binding "Beijing Historical and Cultural City Protection Plan." In the same year, the Zhongguancun Science Park Administrative Committee was officially established, and major infrastructure projects such as Ping'an Avenue and the Fuba Line of the Beijing Subway were completed.

In 2001, Beijing won the bid to host the 29th Olympic Games and also hosted the 21st Summer Universiade. The 29th Olympic Games and the 13th Paralympic Games were successfully held in August and September 2008, respectively.

In 2014, Beijing was designated by the central government as a "center for scientific and technological innovation," and the coordinated development of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region was elevated to a national strategy. From November 10 to 11 of that year, Beijing hosted the APEC Summit.

In 2015, Beijing won the bid to host the 2022 Winter Olympics, becoming the first city in the world to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics.

In 2016, the State Council issued the "Overall Plan for Strengthening Beijing's Role as a National Scientific and Technological Innovation Center."

In September 2017, the "Beijing Urban Master Plan (2016–2035)" was approved, positioning Beijing as the national political center, cultural center, international exchange center, and scientific and technological innovation center. The plan emphasized strengthening the functions of these "four centers" and stated that "the old city should no longer be demolished." In the process of rapid development, Beijing faced a series of "urban problems." Considering the uneven and insufficient development of China's economy, Beijing innovatively became the first city in China to implement a "reduction-oriented development" strategy. The city began to relocate non-capital functions from the central urban area, moving units inconsistent with the "four centers" out of the core area, supporting the planning and construction of the Xiongan New Area in Hebei, and planning and constructing the Beijing Municipal Administrative Center at a high level. On January 11, 2019, the Beijing Municipal Government officially relocated to the administrative office area of the Beijing Municipal Administrative Center in Tongzhou District.

On August 27, 2020, the State Council approved the "Regulatory Detailed Plan for the Core Functional Area of the Capital (Block Level) (2018–2035)," covering the Dongcheng and Xicheng districts.

4. Geography

4.1 Topography and Hydrology

Beijing is located on the northwestern edge of Hebei Province, backed by the foothills of the Taihang Mountains and the Yanshan Mountains, facing the vast North China Plain, and approximately 150 kilometers southeast from the Bohai Sea. The city spans about 160 kilometers from east to west and about 176 kilometers from north to south, with a total land area of 16,410.54 square kilometers. Of this, the plain area covers 6,338 square kilometers, accounting for 38.62%, while the mountainous area covers 10,072 square kilometers, accounting for 61.38%. The terrain of Beijing is generally higher in the northwest and lower in the southeast. The city's topography consists of two major units: the northwestern mountains and the southeastern plain. The average elevation of Beijing is 43.5 meters. The plain areas have elevations between 20 and 60 meters, while the mountains generally range from 1,000 to 1,500 meters. The highest peak in the city is Dongling Mountain, located in the northwest of Mentougou District, with an elevation of 2,303 meters. Beijing has no natural lakes. Its natural rivers, flowing from west to east, form five major water systems: the Juma River, Yongding River, North Canal, Chaobai River, and Ji Canal, all belonging to the Haihe River Basin.

4.2 Climate

Beijing is situated in a warm temperate semi-humid region, with a climate classified as a warm temperate semi-humid continental monsoon climate. The average annual precipitation in the plain areas is about 600 millimeters. The representative station in the urban area records an average annual precipitation of 528 millimeters, with a maximum annual precipitation of 1,404.6 mm and a maximum 24-hour precipitation of 404.2 mm. The average annual maximum snow depth is 7.5 cm, with a historical maximum snow depth of 33.5 cm. Beijing experiences four distinct seasons: spring is windy and dusty, summer is hot and rainy, autumn is clear and dry, and winter is cold with strong winds. Spring and autumn are relatively short, each lasting about 1.5 to 2 months, while summer and winter are longer, with summer lasting nearly four months and winter nearly five months. According to China's seasonal division standards, spring typically begins on March 26, summer on May 20, autumn on September 13, and winter on October 31. Beijing's monsoon characteristics are pronounced, with approximately 60% of the annual precipitation concentrated in July and August during summer, while other seasons are relatively dry. The urban area has an average annual temperature of 13.3 °C. The coldest month (January) averages −2.7 °C, and the hottest month (July) averages 27.2 °C. The extreme minimum temperature recorded was −33.2 °C (at Foyeding on January 30, 1980), and the extreme maximum temperature was 43.5 °C (in Fangshan District on June 10, 1961). For the urban area specifically, the extreme minimum was −27.4 °C (on February 22, 1966), and the extreme maximum was 41.9 °C (on July 24, 1999).

Beijing Meteorological Data (Averages from 1991–2020, Extremes from 1951–present) | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | |------------------|--------|---------|-------|-------|-------|-------|--------|--------|-------|-------|-------|--------|----------| | Record high °C (°F) | 14.3 | 25.6 | 29.5 | 33.5 | 41.1 | 41.1 | 41.9 | 38.3 | 35.9 | 31 | 23.3 | 19.5 | 41.9 | | | (57.7) | (78.1) | (85.1) | (92.3) | (106) | (106) | (107.4) | (100.9) | (96.6) | (87.8) | (73.9) | (67.1) | (107.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.3 | 6.1 | 13.2 | 21 | 27.2 | 30.8 | 31.8 | 30.7 | 26.5 | 19.3 | 10.3 | 3.7 | 18.6 | | | (36.1) | (43) | (55.8) | (69.8) | (81) | (87.4) | (89.2) | (87.3) | (79.7) | (66.7) | (50.5) | (38.7) | (65.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −2.7 | 0.6 | 7.5 | 15.1 | 21.3 | 25.3 | 27.2 | 26.1 | 21.2 | 13.8 | 5.2 | −1 | 13.3 | | | (27.1) | (33.1) | (45.5) | (59.2) | (70.3) | (77.5) | (81) | (79) | (70.2) | (56.8) | (41.4) | (30) | (55.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | −6.9 | −4.2 | 1.9 | 9 | 15.1 | 20 | 23 | 22 | 16.3 | 8.8 | 0.7 | −5 | 8.4 | | | (19.6) | (24.4) | (35.4) | (48.2) | (59.2) | (68) | (73.4) | (71.6) | (61.3) | (47.8) | (33.3) | (23) | (47.1) | | Record low °C (°F) | −22.8 | −27.4 | −15 | −3.2 | 2.5 | 9.8 | 15.3 | 11.4 | 3.7 | −3.5 | −12.3 | −18.3 | −27.4 | | | (−9.0) | (−17.3) | (5) | (26.2) | (36.5) | (49.6) | (59.5) | (52.5) | (38.7) | (25.7) | (9.9) | (−0.9) | (−17.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 2.2 | 5.8 | 8.6 | 21.7 | 36.1 | 72.4 | 169.7 | 113.4 | 53.7 | 28.7 | 13.5 | 2.2 | 528 | | | (0.09) | (0.23) | (0.34) | (0.85) | (1.42) | (2.85) | (6.68) | (4.46) | (2.11) | (1.13) | (0.53) | (0.09) | (20.78) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 1.6 | 2.3 | 3 | 4.7 | 6 | 10 | 11.9 | 10.5 | 7.1 | 5.2 | 2.9 | 1.6 | 66.8 |8 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 43 | 42 | 40 | 43 | 47 | 58 | 69 | 71 | 64 | 58 | 54 | 46 | 53 | | Monthly mean sunshine hours | 188.1 | 189.1 | 231.1 | 243.2 | 265.1 | 221.6 | 190.5 | 205.3 | 206.1 | 199.9 | 173.4 | 177.1 | 2,490.50 | | Percentage of possible sunshine | 62 | 62 | 62 | 61 | 59 | 50 | 42 | 49 | 56 | 59 | 59 | 61 | 57 | | Average ultraviolet index | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 5 |

Data sources: China Meteorological Administration, Weather Atlas, and mherrera.org (extreme temperatures)

Chaoyang District Climate Data (Average data from 1991 to 2020, Extreme data from 1981 to 2010)

| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | |------------------|--------|-------|-------|-------|--------|--------|--------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|----------| | Record high °C (°F) | 14.7 | 20.4 | 29.2 | 32.5 | 38.7 | 39.7 | 41 | 37.4 | 34.8 | 30.8 | 22 | 18.7 | 41 | | | (58.5) | (68.7) | (84.6) | (90.5) | (101.7) | (103.5) | (105.8) | (99.3) | (94.6) | (87.4) | (71.6) | (65.7) | (105.8) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.3 | 6.2 | 13.2 | 21.1 | 27.2 | 30.7 | 31.7 | 30.7 | 26.4 | 19.3 | 10.3 | 3.7 | 18.6 | | | (36.1) | (43.2) | (55.8) | (70) | (81) | (87.3) | (89.1) | (87.3) | (79.5) | (66.7) | (50.5) | (38.7) | (65.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −3.0 | 0.3 | 7.3 | 15 | 21.1 | 24.9 | 26.8 | 25.7 | 20.6 | 13.2 | 4.7 | −1.3 | 12.9 | | | (26.6) | (32.5) | (45.1) | (59) | (70) | (76.8) | (80.2) | (78.3) | (69.1) | (55.8) | (40.5) | (29.7) | (55.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | −7.5 | −4.8 | 1.2 | 8.3 | 14.3 | 19.2 | 22.4 | 21.3 | 15.5 | 7.7 | −0.2 | −5.6 | 7.7 | | | (18.5) | (23.4) | (34.2) | (46.9) | (57.7) | (66.6) | (72.3) | (70.3) | (59.9) | (45.9) | (31.6) | (21.9) | (45.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | −19.4 | −17.5 | −11.7 | −2.9 | 3.7 | 9.3 | 14.2 | 13.3 | 4.3 | −4.9 | −13.2 | −17.8 | −19.4 | | | (−2.9) | (0.5) | (10.9) | (26.8) | (38.7) | (48.7) | (57.6) | (55.9) | (39.7) | (23.2) | (8.2) | (0) | (−2.9) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 2.3 | 5.3 | 8.1 | 22.1 | 36.4 | 80.8 | 183.9 | 138.6 | 59.5 | 29.3 | 13.8 | 1.9 | 582 | | | (0.09) | (0.21) | (0.32) | (0.87) | (1.43) | (3.18) | (7.24) | (5.46) | (2.34) | (1.15) | (0.54) | (0.07) | (22.9) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 1.5 | 2.3 | 2.8 | 4.7 | 5.9 | 10.1 | 12.8 | 10.5 | 7.3 | 4.9 | 2.9 | 1.7 | 67.4 | | Average snowy days | 2.7 | 2.3 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 10.6 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 43 | 42 | 41 | 43 | 49 | 60 | 72 | 73 | 68 | 63 | 57 | 47 | 55 | | Monthly mean sunshine hours | 179.1 | 179.8 | 222.4 | 237.6 | 263.5 | 219.7 | 181.5 | 193.6 | 201.1 | 193.3 | 159 | 164.6 | 2,395.20 | | Possible Sunshine Percentage | 60 | 59 | 60 | 59 | 59 | 49 | 40 | 46 | 54 | 57 | 54 | 57 | 55 |

Data source: National Climate Center

Haidian District Meteorological Data (Average data from 1991 to 2020, Extreme data from 1981 to 2010) | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | |------------------|--------|-------|-------|-------|--------|--------|--------|--------|-------|-------|-------|-------|----------| | Record high °C (°F) | 14.2 | 19.8 | 28.7 | 33.1 | 38.2 | 40.1 | 41.7 | 38.4 | 35.2 | 30.7 | 22.7 | 19.6 | 41.7 | | | (57.6) | (67.6) | (83.7) | (91.6) | (100.8) | (104.2) | (107.1) | (101.1) | (95.4) | (87.3) | (72.9) | (67.3) | (107.1) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.7 | 6.5 | 13.4 | 21.3 | 27.6 | 31 | 32 | 31.2 | 26.8 | 19.5 | 10.6 | 4 | 18.9 | | | (36.9) | (43.7) | (56.1) | (70.3) | (81.7) | (87.8) | (89.6) | (88.2) | (80.2) | (67.1) | (51.1) | (39.2) | (66) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −2.7 | 0.6 | 7.4 | 15.1 | 21.2 | 25.1 | 26.9 | 25.9 | 20.8 | 13.3 | 4.9 | −1.1 | 13.1 | | | (27.1) | (33.1) | (45.3) | (59.2) | (70.2) | (77.2) | (80.4) | (78.6) | (69.4) | (55.9) | (40.8) | (30) | (55.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | −7.1 | −4.3 | 1.8 | 8.8 | 14.8 | 19.7 | 22.6 | 21.6 | 15.9 | 8.3 | 0.3 | −5.2 | 8.1 | | | (19.2) | (24.3) | (35.2) | (47.8) | (58.6) | (67.5) | (72.7) | (70.9) | (60.6) | (46.9) | (32.5) | (22.6) | (46.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −20.2 | −15.7 | −10.7 | −2.7 | 3.4 | 10.5 | 15.8 | 13.9 | 4 | −3.5 | −10.8 | −15.7 | −20.2 | | | (−4.4) | (3.7) | (12.7) | (27.1) | (38.1) | (50.9) | (60.4) | (57) | (39.2) | (25.7) | (12.6) | (3.7) | (−4.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 2.1 | 5.6 | 9.6 | 21.6 | 34.7 | 84.8 | 209.5 | 119.7 | 53.3 | 27.8 | 15.1 | 2.5 | 586.3 | | | (0.08) | (0.22) | (0.38) | (0.85) | (1.37) | (3.34) | (8.25) | (4.71) | (2.1) | (1.09) | (0.59) | (0.1) | (23.08) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 1.3 | 2.3 | 2.8 | 4.5 | 6.1 | 10.3 | 13.1 | 11 | 7.5 | 5 | 3 | 1.5 | 68.4 | | Average snowy days | 2.4 | 2.2 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.5 | 2.4 | 9.7 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 43 | 42 | 41 | 43 | 48 | 60 | 72 | 73 | 67 | 62 | 56 | 46 | 54 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 183.1 | 183.6 | 220.2 | 233.1 | 250.5 | 203.2 | 170.2 | 186.9 | 194.8 | 188.8 | 166 | 169.9 | 2,350.30 | | Possible sunshine percentage | 61 | 60 | 59 | 58 | 56 | 45 | 38 | 44 | 53 | 55 | 56 | 59 | 54 |

Data source: National Climate CenterBeijing Capital International Airport Meteorological Data (Average data from 2013 to 2022, Extreme data from 2013 to present) | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Annual | |--------------|--------|-------|-------|-------|--------|--------|-------|--------|-------|-------|-------|--------|--------| | Record high °C (°F) | 13 | 26 | 27 | 35 | 42 | 41 | 40 | 38 | 37 | 30 | 21 | 15 | 42 | | | (55.4) | (78.8) | (80.6) | (95) | (107.6) | (105.8) | (104) | (100.4) | (98.6) | (86) | (69.8) | (59) | (107.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.7 | 6 | 14.1 | 21.5 | 27.4 | 30.8 | 31.5 | 30.9 | 27.2 | 19.1 | 10.7 | 4.3 | 18.8 | | | (36.9) | (42.8) | (57.4) | (70.7) | (81.3) | (87.4) | (88.7) | (87.6) | (81) | (66.4) | (51.3) | (39.7) | (65.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −3.4 | −0.4 | 8.1 | 15.4 | 21.4 | 25.3 | 27 | 26.1 | 21.1 | 12.5 | 4.4 | −2.2 | 12.9 | | | (25.9) | (31.3) | (46.6) | (59.7) | (70.5) | (77.5) | (80.6) | (79) | (70) | (54.5) | (39.9) | (28) | (55.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | −7.4 | −5.2 | 2.3 | 8.3 | 14.1 | 19.2 | 22.6 | 21.4 | 16.1 | 7.9 | 0.6 | −6.2 | 7.8 | | | (18.7) | (22.6) | (36.1) | (46.9) | (57.4) | (66.6) | (72.7) | (70.5) | (61) | (46.2) | (33.1) | (20.8) | (46) | | Record low °C (°F) | −23.0 | −16.0 | −12.0 | −2.0 | 2 | 11 | 16 | 11 | 6 | −3.0 | −12.0 | −22.0 | −23.0 | | | (−9.4) | (3.2) | (10.4) | (28.4) | (35.6) | (51.8) | (60.8) | (51.8) | (42.8) | (26.6) | (10.4) | (−7.6) | (−9.4) | | Average relative humidity (%) | 46 | 44 | 42 | 43 | 47 | 58 | 72 | 71 | 68 | 64 | 57 | 46 | 55 |

4.3 Environmental Issues

• Air Pollution

Beijing's air pollution has long been criticized. The main sources of air pollution are industrial waste gas and vehicle exhaust emissions. After the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Beijing's air quality did not improve as a result. On February 21, 2011, the air pollution index recorded by the U.S. Embassy in Beijing exceeded the normal measurable range. The Beijing Meteorological Department also reported on February 24 that as of that day, Beijing's air quality had reached severe pollution levels for three consecutive days. A report titled "National Environmental Analysis of the People's Republic of China" released by the Asian Development Bank and Tsinghua University listed Beijing as one of the world's top ten most air-polluted cities. As Beijing's air quality deteriorated sharply, public opinion urged the authorities to adopt PM2.5 as a domestic measurement standard as soon as possible. Under pressure from public opinion, the Ministry of Environmental Protection announced that it would begin piloting PM2.5 monitoring in the Beijing-Tianjin region in 2012, with nationwide implementation starting in 2016. On February 2, 2012, Beijing announced its daily average PM2.5 concentration for the first time. On January 13, 2013, Beijing's air pollution level hit a historical record. Beijing's air quality continued to deteriorate. Official agencies advised Beijing's 20 million residents to avoid going out if possible. Children and the sick, in particular, were advised to minimize their time outdoors. Xinhua News Agency reported that day that Beijing's PM2.5 index on January 12 was nearing the "off-the-charts" level, with air quality remaining at the severe pollution level (Level 6). Meanwhile, the air pollution index measured by the U.S. Embassy in Beijing also reached a record high of 600 points that day, even hitting 699 points in the afternoon local time. Prior to this, the highest value recorded by the U.S. Embassy for Beijing's air pollution index had remained around 500 points. An index of 50 points represents good air quality, and exceeding 300 points already enters the hazardous level.

According to statistics from the United Nations Environment Programme, the Beijing government has spent over 170 billion US dollars in recent years to tackle environmental pollution in Beijing, while also implementing a series of measures to improve the city's air quality. These measures include shutting down many highly polluting enterprises, relocating enterprises that are difficult to close, such as the Shougang Group, in batches to Hebei Province; deploying energy-saving and environmentally friendly buses that use clean energy like natural gas and electricity; restricting the use of government and private vehicles; significantly reducing bus and subway fares to encourage Beijing residents to use public transportation as much as possible; using renewable energy to supply about 20% of the electricity for Olympic venues during the Beijing Olympics; prohibiting "yellow-label vehicles" with high exhaust emissions from entering the city center; and vigorously planting trees in areas surrounding Beijing, such as Inner Mongolia and Shanxi, to increase the greening rate.The Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau stated that Beijing's air quality in 2019 was the best in the past seven years. In 2019, the annual average concentration of PM2.5 in Beijing was 42 micrograms per cubic meter, a decrease of 9 micrograms per cubic meter compared to 51 micrograms per cubic meter in 2018, reaching the lowest level since monitoring began in 2013. However, it still exceeded the national standard by 20%. Moreover, throughout 2019, Beijing experienced no severely polluted days, with only four heavily polluted days. The annual average concentrations of PM10, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide in Beijing in 2019 were 68 micrograms per cubic meter, 37 micrograms per cubic meter, and 4 micrograms per cubic meter, respectively. Among these, PM10 and nitrogen dioxide met the national standards for the first time (70 micrograms per cubic meter and 40 micrograms per cubic meter, respectively), while sulfur dioxide consistently met the national standard (60 micrograms per cubic meter). Spatially, PM10, PM2.5, and nitrogen dioxide in 2019 still exhibited a gradient distribution characteristic of "higher in the south and lower in the north," while sulfur dioxide concentrations remained low across the entire city. Specifically, the annual average PM2.5 concentrations in Miyun District and Huairou District in 2019 were 34 micrograms per cubic meter and 35 micrograms per cubic meter, respectively, making them the first to meet the national secondary standard. Although the north-south pollution disparity still exists, it has significantly narrowed, decreasing from 63 micrograms per cubic meter in 2013 to 23 micrograms per cubic meter in 2019, indicating a gradual homogenization of PM2.5 levels across the city. In 2021, the annual average concentration of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in Beijing's atmospheric environment dropped to 33 micrograms per cubic meter.

Dust erosion from deserts in northern and northwestern China often brings haze and floating dust to Beijing's skies. In early spring each year, "sandstorms" may even occur, though strictly speaking, they generally do not meet the meteorological standard for sandstorms (i.e., visibility less than 1 kilometer) but rather fall under the category of floating dust or blowing sand (visibility less than 10 kilometers).

Another unique phenomenon in Beijing occurs between April and May each year: flying catkins, primarily from poplar trees but also from willow trees. Due to the widespread use of white poplars as the main tree species for urban road greening in Beijing, their white catkins are easily carried by the wind, creating the spectacle of漫天飞杨絮 (poplar catkins filling the sky) in spring. This also contributes to a certain degree of environmental pollution. In recent years, Beijing has implemented measures such as trunk injections of inhibitors, grafting, and gradually replacing white poplars with other tree species to control the flying catkins, and the phenomenon has gradually been brought under control.

• Water Pollution

According to information from the Ministry of Environmental Protection, groundwater in the Changping area of Beijing has shown heavy metal超标 (exceeding standards), with lead being the main pollutant. Groundwater in the southern suburbs of Beijing has experienced organic pollution, with main pollutants including benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and trichloroethylene. Possible pollution sources include the Beijing No. 2 Chemical Plant, coking plants, and the oil depot at Xijiao Airport.

Boundaries and Geographical Center | Direction | Location | Latitude and Longitude | | ------ | ------ | ------ | | North | Labagoumen Manchu Township, Huairou District | 41°03′34.4″N 116°37′54.1″E | | East | Xinchengzi Town, Miyun District | 40°39′33.3″N 117°30′28.8″E | | South | Yufa Town, Daxing District | 39°26′29.8″N 116°25′41.3″E | | West | Qingshui Town, Mentougou District | 39°58′06.3″N 115°25′02.0″E | | Center | Xingshou Town, Changping District | 40°15′02.1″N 116°27′45.4″E |

5. Administrative Divisions

5.1 History

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Shuntian Prefecture was established to administer the capital region, a status similar to today's Beijing Municipality but with a different jurisdictional area. In the early years of the Republic of China, the Beiyang Government still designated Beijing as the capital. In 1913, Shuntian Prefecture was renamed the Capital District (Jingzhao Difang), with a scope and status roughly equivalent to the former prefecture, directly under the central government. In June 1928, after the Northern Expeditionary Army captured Beijing, the Capital District was abolished, and Beijing was renamed Beiping. Initially established as the Beiping Special Municipality directly under the Nanjing Nationalist Government, it was later renamed Beiping City, subordinate to the Executive Yuan. During the Japanese occupation, the Beijing Municipal Government was established. After Japan's surrender, the original Beiping City administration was restored. The area under Beiping City's jurisdiction was smaller than the former Shuntian Prefecture, the Capital District, and today's Beijing Municipality, roughly encompassing the entirety of present-day Xicheng and Dongcheng Districts, most of Chaoyang District, the southern half of Haidian District, the northern part of Shijingshan District, and the southern part of Fengtai District.

5.2 Modern Era

With the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the capital was established in Beiping, and the city was renamed Beijing. Subsequently, the administrative area of Beijing Municipality expanded several times. In 1952, Wanping County from Hebei Province was incorporated into Beijing. In 1956, Changping County was incorporated. On March 7, 1958, the five counties/districts of Tong County, Shunyi, Daxing, Liangxiang, and Fangshan were transferred to Beijing. On October 20 of the same year, the four counties of Huairou, Miyun, Pinggu, and Yanqing were also incorporated into Beijing, forming the current boundaries of Beijing Municipality. As of 2009, Beijing administered 16 districts and 2 counties, with township-level divisions including 135 subdistricts, 142 towns, and 40 townships (including 5 ethnic townships).

Among the current municipal districts of Beijing, Dongcheng and Xicheng Districts are located in the city's central area, with their jurisdiction primarily covering the area within today's Second Ring Road and the old city limits of the Qing Dynasty, representing the traditional urban core. With the acceleration of Beijing's urbanization, population growth, and urban expansion, large parts of the four inner suburban districts—Chaoyang, Haidian, Fengtai, and Shijingshan—have gradually been recognized as part of the urban area. Together with the original two urban districts, they form the concept of the "Six Urban Districts." Furthermore, most suburban counties have since been converted into municipal districts. The planned urban area of Beijing is within the Fifth Ring Road, covering approximately 667 square kilometers.

On July 1, 2010, the State Council approved the abolition of the former Dongcheng, Xicheng, Chongwen, and Xuanwu Districts. A new Dongcheng District was formed by merging the former Dongcheng and Chongwen Districts, and a new Xicheng District was formed by merging the former Xicheng and Xuanwu Districts. Thus, Beijing's central urban districts were consolidated into two, and the urban-suburban structure changed from the previous "Eight Urban Districts" to "Six Urban Districts." In November 2015, the State Council of the People's Republic of China approved an adjustment to Beijing's administrative divisions. Miyun and Yanqing Counties were abolished and established as districts, meaning Beijing would no longer have county-level administrative units named "county."

Beijing's municipal districts are functionally divided into four layers, from the innermost to the outermost: the Capital Function Core Area, the Urban Function Extended Area, the New Urban Development Area, and the Ecological Conservation Area. In a narrow sense, Beijing today may refer only to the urban area, roughly the scope of the Six Urban Districts. In a broad sense, Beijing refers to the entire Beijing Municipality directly under the central government, including suburban districts and counties.

Beijing's urban development pattern is typically radial, consisting of the main urban area within the Fifth Ring Road and numerous surrounding satellite towns. The closest batch of satellite towns, such as Huilongguan, Tiantongyuan, Haidian Shanhou, and Shijingshan Shougang, are almost contiguous with the main urban area. Fourteen farther satellite towns—the Sub-Center, Yizhuang, Huangcun, Fangshan Yanhua, Liangxiang, Mentougou Chengguan, Changping, Shahe, Yanqing, Huairou, Miyun, Pinggu, Shunyi, and Changxindian—along with two airport areas, Tianzhu and Lixian, each have their own characteristics while gradually integrating with Beijing's overall development. Even more distant towns, such as Yanjiao, Jizhou, Tangshan, Langfang, Chengde, Baoding, Tianjin, Zhangjiakou, and Xiong'an, are sometimes considered Beijing's satellite towns, although officially their relationship with Beijing is generally described as "Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei coordinated development."

As of December 31, 2022, Beijing Municipality comprised 16 municipal districts and 343 township-level administrative divisions, including 143 towns, 30 townships, 5 ethnic townships, and 165 subdistricts.

Administrative Divisions of Beijing Municipality

| Division Code | Division Name | Pinyin | Area (km²) | Permanent Population (2020) | Seat of Government | Subdistricts | Towns | Townships | Ethnic Townships | |---------|------|----------------|-----------|-------------|-------|-----|-----|----|-----| | 110000 | Beijing Municipality | Běijīng Shì | 16,410.54 | 21,893,095 | Tongzhou District | 165 | 143 | 30 | 5 | | — Municipal Districts — | | | | | | | | | | | 110101 | Dongcheng District | Dōngchéng Qū | 41.9 | 708,829 | Jingshan Subdistrict | 17 | | | | | 110102 | Xicheng District | Xīchéng Qū | 50.7 | 1,106,214 | Financial Street Subdistrict | 15 | | | | | 110105 | Chaoyang District | Cháoyáng Qū | 470.8 | 3,452,460 | Chaowai Subdistrict | 24 | | 18 | 1 | | 110106 | Fengtai District | Fēngtái Qū | 306 | 2,019,764 | Fengtai Subdistrict | 24 | 2 | | | | 110107 | Shijingshan District | Shíjǐngshān Qū | 85.74 | 567,851 | Lugu Subdistrict | 9 | | | | | 110108 | Haidian District | Hǎidiàn Qū | 431 | 3,133,469 | Haidian Subdistrict | 22 | 7 | | | | 110109 | Mentougou District | Méntóugōu Qū | 1,447.85 | 392,606 | Dayu Subdistrict | 4 | 9 | | | | 110111 | Fangshan District | Fángshān Qū | 2,019 | 1,312,778 | Gongchen Subdistrict | 8 | 14 | 6 | | | 110112 | Tongzhou District | Tōngzhōu Qū | 906 | 1,840,295 | Beiyuan Subdistrict | 6 | 10 | | 1 | | 110113 | Shunyi District | Shùnyì Qū | 1,021 | 1,324,044 | Shengli Subdistrict | 6 | 19 | | | | 110114 | Changping District | Chāngpíng Qū | 1,343.50 | 2,269,487 | Chengbei Subdistrict | 8 | 14 | | | | 110115 | Daxing District | Dàxīng Qū | 1,036.33 | 1,993,591 | Xingfeng Subdistrict | 8 | 14 | | | | 110116 | Huairou District | Huáiróu Qū | 2,122.80 | 441,040 | Longshan Subdistrict | 2 | 12 | | 2 | | 110117 | Pinggu District | Pínggǔ Qū | 948.24 | 457,313 | Riverside Subdistrict | 2 | 14 | 2 | | | 110118 | Miyun District | Mìyún Qū | 2,229.45 | 527,683 | Gulou Subdistrict | 2 | 17 | | 1 | | 110119 | Yanqing District | Yánqìng Qū | 1,994.88 | 345,671 | Rulin Subdistrict | 3 | 11 | 4 | |

6. Economy

6.1 Economic Data

In 2023, Beijing's regional GDP reached 4,376.07 billion yuan, a year-on-year increase of 5.2%; the per capita regional GDP reached 199,900 yuan, approximately $28,366. In 2015, the proportion of Beijing's tertiary industry reached around 80%, with industries such as finance contributing the most to the economy. Specifically, the financial industry grew by 18.1%, information transmission, software, and information technology services grew by 12%, and scientific research and technical services grew by 14.1%. In 2015, Beijing shut down 326 industrial enterprises and dismantled, merged, or relocated 97 wholesale commodity markets.

In recent years, Beijing's real estate and automotive industries have continued to develop. Beijing's manufacturing sector includes the automotive industry, biopharmaceutical industry, opto-mechatronics industry, and microelectronics industry. In 2015, Beijing's tourism industry received 4.2 million overseas tourists and 270 million domestic tourists. In 2015, the top two export markets for Beijing were the United States and Hong Kong, with the main export products being mechanical and electrical products as well as high-tech products. Throughout 2015, Beijing's freight volume was 287.652 million tons, and passenger volume was 6.99231 billion person-times. By the end of the year, the city's motor vehicle ownership reached 5.619 million. The annual postal and telecommunications business revenue totaled 99.09 billion yuan.

Beijing exhibits significant regional development imbalances. The city is often described as having "the south poor and the north rich." According to 2008 statistics, the combined GDP of the five southern districts (Xuanwu, Chongwen, Fengtai, Fangshan, Daxing) was less than one-fifth of that of the five northern districts (Xicheng, Dongcheng, Haidian, Chaoyang, Shijingshan). The fiscal revenue of the southern districts was also less than one-quarter of that of the northern districts.

In 2004, Beijing's local fiscal revenue for the year reached 53.4 billion yuan, maintaining a growth rate of over 20% for eight consecutive years. In 2009, the city's local fiscal revenue (general budget) completed 202.68 billion yuan, a year-on-year increase of 10.3%. In 2015, the city's general public budget revenue was 472.39 billion yuan, a year-on-year increase of 12.3%, while the general public budget expenditure was 575.14 billion yuan, an increase of 27.1%.

6.2 Secondary Industry

Beijing's secondary industry has gradually shifted from traditional industries like chemicals and metallurgy in its early stages to a modern industrial structure focusing on automobiles, electronics, and pharmaceuticals. By 2018, the total industrial output value approached 2 trillion yuan, with the output value of the three major industries—automobiles, electronics, and pharmaceuticals—each reaching the scale of hundreds of billions of yuan. Their combined output value accounted for 40.1% of the total output value of industries above a designated size, an increase of 27.3 percentage points compared to 1986. Their contribution to the growth of the total industrial output value of industries above a designated size in the city reached 40.5%, making them important engines for Beijing's industrial development.

Beijing's automotive industry is distributed across Chaoyang, Tongzhou, Shunyi, Miyun, Fangshan, and Daxing, with companies such as Beijing Benz and Beiqi Foton. The biopharmaceutical industry focuses on the Zhongguancun Life Science Park, Beijing Economic-Technological Development Area, and Daxing Bioengineering and Pharmaceutical Industry Base, developing areas including chemical pharmaceuticals, traditional Chinese medicine, and biopharmaceuticals. The opto-mechatronics industry includes CNC machine tools (Shunyi Development Zone), power generation and transmission equipment, engineering machinery, electronic specialized equipment, intelligent instruments and meters (Changping Science Park), printing machinery, medical devices, new energy and energy-saving environmental protection equipment, lasers, and robotics. The microelectronics industry includes system-on-chip, liquid crystal displays, computer and network products, third-generation mobile communications, digital imaging products, transportation electronics, digital television, IC cards and electronic identification products, and semiconductor lighting materials.

6.3 Tertiary Industry

Beijing is the provincial-level administrative region with the most developed tertiary industry in China. In 2009, the added value of the tertiary industry was 900.45 billion yuan, accounting for 75.8% of GDP, ranking first in the country. In recent years, Beijing's real estate and automotive industries have continued to develop. In 2009, approximately 23.6 million square meters of property were sold, with sales exceeding 325.97 billion yuan. By December 2009, the number of motor vehicles in Beijing had exceeded 4 million, a milestone that took only 2 years and 7 months to increase from 3 million.

Beijing is one of the important commercial and financial centers in northern China. The headquarters of policy banks such as China Development Bank and Agricultural Development Bank of China, large insurance companies like China Life Insurance and PICC, as well as financial regulatory institutions including the People's Bank of China, China Banking Regulatory Commission, China Securities Regulatory Commission, and China Insurance Regulatory Commission, are all located in Beijing.

Beijing is home to 48 Fortune Global 500 company headquarters as of the 2013 Fortune list, making it one of the cities with the most Fortune Global 500 headquarters in the world. Beijing has also attracted 82 regional headquarters of multinational corporations, 183 foreign-invested companies, and 353 foreign-funded R&D centers. Additionally, Beijing hosts the headquarters of many large Chinese state-owned enterprises, including Sinopec Group, China National Petroleum Corporation, State Grid Corporation of China, China Telecom, and China Mobile Communications Corporation, all of which are central enterprises listed in the Fortune Global 500. The Beijing Central Business District (CBD) in Chaoyang District, centered around the China World Trade Center, has become Beijing's most important business center, shopping district, and high-end residential area, hosting the China headquarters of hundreds of multinational corporations from around the world.

In 2015, the total postal and telecommunications business revenue reached 99.09 billion yuan. This included postal business revenue of 6.78 billion yuan and telecommunications business revenue of 92.3 billion yuan. Throughout the year, 610 million postal letters and 1.41 billion express mail items were sent. By the end of the year, the number of fixed-line telephone subscribers reached 7.846 million, with a fixed-line penetration rate of 36.1 lines per 100 people. The number of mobile phone subscribers reached 40.519 million, with a mobile phone penetration rate of 186.7 subscribers per 100 people. The number of fixed broadband internet access subscribers reached 4.691 million by year-end.

Tourism is also an important industry in Beijing. In 2015, Beijing's tourism industry received 4.2 million overseas tourists, generating $4.6 billion in foreign exchange earnings from tourism. It also received 270 million domestic tourists, with domestic tourism revenue reaching 432 billion yuan.

The Beijing Free Trade Zone was officially established on September 21, 2020. According to its overall planning scheme, the Beijing Free Trade Zone is divided into three functional areas: the Science and Technology Innovation Area, the International Business Services Area, and the High-end Industries Area, covering a total area of 119.68 square kilometers.

6.4 Tourism

Beijing boasts abundant tourism resources, including 2 national key scenic areas, 1 national historical and cultural city, 1 Chinese historical and cultural village, 99 national key cultural relics protection units (including sections of the Great Wall and the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal within Beijing), and 326 municipal-level cultural relics protection units. The city has 8 UNESCO World Heritage sites, making it the city with the most World Heritage sites in the world. These eight sites are: the Great Wall, the Imperial Palace of the Ming and Qing Dynasties (the Forbidden City), the Summer Palace (an imperial garden in Beijing), the Temple of Heaven (an imperial sacrificial altar in Beijing), the Ming Tombs (imperial mausoleums of the Ming and Qing Dynasties), the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian, the Grand Canal, and the Central Axis of Beijing. The national key scenic areas include the Badaling section of the Great Wall and the Ming Tombs, as well as the Shihua Cave. The Chinese historical and cultural village is Cuandixia Village in Zhaitang Town, Mentougou District.

6.5 Reduction-Oriented Development

Beijing plans to relieve itself of functions non-essential to its role as the capital, reduce existing economic stock, and relocate economic activities that do not align with Beijing's positioning as the "four centers" (national political center, cultural center, international exchange center, and scientific and technological innovation center). Beijing has begun relocating non-capital functions from the central urban area, moving units inconsistent with the "four centers" positioning out of the central city. Some central state-owned enterprise headquarters will be relocated to the Xiongan New Area in Hebei Province. Some enterprises located along Chang'an Avenue and its extension will be relocated first. Some secondary and tertiary headquarters of central state-owned enterprises and municipal state-owned enterprise headquarters located in the central urban area will move to the Beijing Municipal Administrative Center. By the end of 2020, progress had been made in relocating Huaxia Bank, BTG Group, BUCG, Beijing Institute of Architectural Design, and the Beijing Public Housing Center.

7. Transportation

Beijing has a well-developed transportation system and is China's largest railway, highway, and aviation hub. It is also a crucial transportation center for the entire East Asian region, boasting a comprehensive urban transport network. By the end of 2019, Beijing had 1,167 km of expressways and 6,162 km of urban roads (including 6 ring roads (from the 2nd Ring Road to the 6th Ring Road and the Grand Outer Ring Road) and 15 national highways), 699.3 km of rail transit lines, several railways, and 2 international airports. The number of motor vehicles in Beijing reached 6.365 million. However, factors such as the relatively lagging development of the monocentric radial transportation system compared to urban expansion have made traffic congestion a long-standing issue for Beijing. In 2015, Beijing's freight volume was 287.652 million tons, and passenger volume was 6.99231 billion person-times. By the end of the year, the city had 5.619 million motor vehicles, including 5.35 million civilian vehicles. Among these, private vehicles numbered 4.403 million, with 3.165 million being passenger cars.

7.1 Highways

China's highway network is also radial with Beijing at its center. Multiple national highways and expressways start from Beijing. In 2006, the Ministry of Transport of the People's Republic of China and the Beijing Municipal People's Government jointly installed the China Highway Zero Kilometer Marker in front of the Zhengyangmen Gate at Tiananmen Square, symbolizing the starting point of the national trunk highway system.

The urban roads within Beijing's city proper feature a typical grid pattern, straight and orderly, a design that originated in the Jin Dynasty, developed during the Yuan Dynasty, and was finalized in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The roads in Beijing's outer areas follow a pattern of rings combined with radials.

7.2 Railways

Beijing has long been the center of China's railway network. The history of Beijing's railways can be traced back to the late Qing Dynasty. The earliest railway was the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway, built under the direction of Zhan Tianyou and completed in 1909, which was the first railway independently constructed by Chinese people. By the end of 2018, Beijing had 1,103 km of national railways. In terms of conventional railways, major trunk lines such as the Beijing-Harbin, Beijing-Shanghai, Beijing-Kowloon, Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Yuanping, Beijing-Baotou, Beijing-Chengde, Beijing-Tongliao, and Fengtai-Shacheng lines converge here, and the Daqin Railway also passes through Beijing. International and cross-border trains passing through Beijing connect to regions and countries including Hong Kong, Mongolia, Russia, Vietnam, and North Korea. Regarding high-speed railways, Beijing has completed the Beijing-Tianjin Intercity Railway, Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway, Beijing-Guangzhou High-Speed Railway, Beijing-Xiong'an Intercity Railway, Beijing-Zhangjiakou Intercity Railway, Beijing-Shenyang High-Speed Railway, and Beijing-Tangshan Intercity Railway.

Eight of the 10 planned national passenger hubs in Beijing are railway passenger hubs. Currently, the four major railway top-class stations are Beijing Railway Station, Beijing West Railway Station, Beijing South Railway Station, and Beijing Fengtai Railway Station. An underground railway connects Beijing Railway Station and Beijing West Railway Station.

Beijing Railway Station is the earliest large-scale railway passenger station built in Beijing. Before the completion of Beijing West Railway Station, it was the most important station in Beijing and the busiest station in Asia in terms of passenger flow, operating under long-term overload. The completion of Beijing West Railway Station in 1996 significantly alleviated the pressure on Beijing Railway Station. Currently, Beijing West Railway Station primarily handles passenger services for lines like the Beijing-Kowloon and Beijing-Guangzhou lines, while the original Beijing Railway Station mainly handles most passenger services for lines like the Beijing-Harbin, Beijing-Shanghai, Beijing-Chengde, and Fengtai-Shacheng lines. As of May 1, 2009, Beijing West Railway Station had 220 train departures or stops daily, while Beijing Railway Station had 177. Beijing Subway Line 2 passes through Beijing Railway Station, and Beijing Subway Line 9 and Line 7 both serve Beijing West Railway Station. Numerous bus terminals are also located near both stations. Beijing South Railway Station, completed in 2008, is the starting and terminal station for the Beijing-Tianjin Intercity Railway and the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway. Beijing Fengtai Railway Station, renovated and completed in 2022, is another starting and terminal station for the Beijing-Shanghai Line, Beijing-Guangzhou Line, and Beijing-Guangzhou High-Speed Railway. Beijing Subway Line 4 connects to the underground platform of Beijing South Railway Station, enabling seamless transfers, and Beijing Subway Line 14 also passes through Beijing South Railway Station.

Other major railway passenger stations in Beijing include Beijing North Railway Station, Beijing East Railway Station, Beijing Chaoyang Railway Station, Qinghe Railway Station, Changping North Railway Station, Huairou North Railway Station, Miyun North Railway Station, Tongzhou West Railway Station, Huangcun Railway Station, Beijing Daxing Railway Station, Daxing Airport Railway Station, etc., with the Beijing Sub-Center Railway Station under construction. These railway stations are also important hubs for Beijing's urban transportation. Beijing North Railway Station primarily handles passenger services for the Beijing-Baotou Passenger Dedicated Line and Beijing Suburban Railways and is a key component of the Xizhimen transportation hub. Transfers to Beijing Subway Line 2, Line 4, and Line 13 are available at Beijing North Railway Station. Beijing Chaoyang Railway Station primarily handles passenger services for the Beijing-Harbin High-Speed Railway, but as of 2022, it has no subway connection; Beijing Subway Line 3 is currently under construction at the station's west square. Currently, taking trains and purchasing train tickets in Beijing is very convenient. The number of train ticket sales outlets in Beijing is the second highest in China, second only to Guangdong Province. Automatic ticket vending and collection machines are also available at various railway stations to facilitate ticket purchases and printing of tickets bought online.

Beijing was the first city in China to build a subway, with construction beginning on July 1, 1965. By the end of 2021, the Beijing Subway had 27 operational lines (including 22 metro lines, 1 medium-low speed maglev line, 2 modern tram lines, and 2 airport rail lines), with a total length of 783 km and 456 operational stations (including 72 transfer stations). The Beijing Subway's average daily passenger flow exceeds 10 million, and it set a single-day record of 13.7538 million passenger trips on July 12, 2019, making it one of the busiest urban rail transit systems in the world. The Beijing Subway is undergoing large-scale expansion, and the total length of rail transit in the city is expected to exceed 1,000 km by 2025.

7.3 Aviation

Beijing Capital International Airport is one of China's most geographically important airports. Located in Shunyi District (administratively co-managed by Shunyi and Chaoyang Districts), it is 20 km from Beijing's urban center and serves as a major gateway to the city. It currently has three terminals, three runways, dual control towers, and a designed passenger capacity of 82 million annually. After several expansions, Terminal 3 of Capital Airport is currently the world's second-largest single terminal building. It is also one of the three international airports in China with three runways (the other two being Shanghai Pudong International Airport and Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport). As the leading hub among China's four major gateway airports, Beijing Capital International Airport handles over 1,400 flights daily from more than 70 airlines, connecting to 191 cities worldwide. According to 2018 statistics, Capital Airport handled over 100 million passengers, ranking first in Asia and second in the world among single airports. In terms of city totals, this is slightly less than the combined passenger volume of Shanghai's domestic Hongqiao Airport and international Pudong Airport (120 million) and the combined volume of Tokyo's domestic Haneda Airport and international Narita Airport (107 million).

Beijing Daxing International Airport is Beijing's second international airport and an important international airport for North China. Located between Beijing's Daxing District and Langfang City, Hebei Province, it is 46 km from Beijing's urban center. Daxing Airport currently has the world's largest single terminal building. It is positioned as a major international aviation hub, currently with 4 operational runways (planned to expand to 6 in the long term), capable of handling 100 million passengers annually. The airport and its supporting projects were completed and accepted on June 30, 2019, and began operations on September 25 of the same year.

In addition, Beijing has several other relatively smaller airports, including:

Beijing Nanyuan Airport: Built in 1910, it was China's earliest airport and one of the earliest airports built in the world. Located in the southern suburbs of Beijing, 12 km from the city center, it was a dual-use military-civilian airport where China United Airlines operated a small number of civilian flights as its base. It closed after Daxing Airport became operational. Beijing Xijiao Airport: A military airport used by Chinese national leaders, party, government, and military officials, not open to the public. Beijing Liangxiang Airport: A military airport planned to be converted into a dual-use military-civilian cargo airport. Beijing Shahe Airport: A military airport under the 34th Air Division of the Air Force, where multiple aerobatic teams have performed. Beijing Nanjiao Airport: A military airport intended to inherit the military and civilian functions of Nanyuan Airport.

7.4 Ground Public Transport

To alleviate urban traffic congestion and improve air quality, Beijing began formulating and implementing policies to prioritize the development of public transportation in 2005.

In 1899, Beijing built China's first tram line, opened its first public bus route in 1935, and launched its first trolleybus line in 1956. In 1997, Beijing successively opened its first bus-only lane and air-conditioned bus route. After long-term, especially rapid recent development, Beijing's public transport system now operates nearly 30,000 vehicles of various types. In 2019, it had 1,158 operational routes with a total network length of 27,632 km, an annual total mileage of 1.279 billion kilometers, and a total annual passenger volume of 3.17 billion person-times.

• Taxis

According to statistics, as of April 2006, the number of unlicensed taxis ("black cabs") in Beijing even exceeded the number of legal taxis. However, after years of crackdowns, the number of unlicensed taxis has significantly decreased. In 2020, the total number of taxis in Beijing was approximately 70,000.

8. Education

As the capital city during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, Beijing has been home to the Guozijian, China's highest official institution of learning and the supreme administrative body for education management, since 1306.

In modern times, with the rise of new-style education, the Guozijian and the imperial examination system were abolished. In 1898, the Jingshi University (now Peking University), China's first modern national comprehensive university, was established in Beijing. It also assumed the functions of the nation's highest educational administrative body, replacing the role of the Guozijian. During the Republican era, although Beijing (then Beiping) was not the capital of China for a period, it remained the country's cultural and educational center.

Today, Beijing is the city with the largest number of higher education institutions in China, hosting numerous prestigious universities, including several internationally renowned ones such as Peking University, Tsinghua University, and the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. According to statistics, in 2015, Beijing had 58 regular higher education institutions (including 15 private ones) and 80 postgraduate training institutions.

8.1 Libraries

The National Library of China, located in Haidian District, Beijing, is the national library of the People's Republic of China. Its predecessor was the Jingshi Library, established on September 9, 1909. As the national depository library, the National Library of China legally receives deposit copies of publications from publishers across the country. It also collects non-official publications of the People's Republic of China, such as doctoral dissertations from various universities. By the end of 2015, its collection had reached 35.1815 million volumes (items), ranking fifth among libraries worldwide in terms of holdings. Approximately 2.1 million books and periodicals are available for open-shelf circulation, accessible to readers.

In 2018, the number of public libraries in Beijing reached 6,052, an increase of over 200 from the previous year. Among them, the Capital Library, located in Chaoyang District, is the largest public library in Beijing. By March 2012, its collection had reached 6 million volumes, with a particularly rich collection of ancient rare books, local literature, and modern books and newspapers.

9. Population

By the end of 2022, the city's permanent resident population was 21.843 million, a decrease of 43,000 from the end of the previous year. In terms of age composition, the permanent resident population aged 0-14 was 2.64 million, accounting for 12.1% of the city's total permanent resident population; the population aged 15-59 was 14.552 million, accounting for 66.6%; and the population aged 60 and above was 4.651 million, accounting for 21.3%.

By the end of 2018, Beijing's population was 21.542 million, a decrease from 21.707 million at the end of 2017. According to the Seventh National Population Census in 2020, Beijing's population was 21.893 million. The average life expectancy of Beijing residents is 74 years.

Population Data by District in Beijing (End of 2017) | District Name | Total (10,000 persons) | Proportion (%) | Population Density (per sq km) | Registered Population (10,000 persons) | |------|--------|-------|-------------|----------| | Beijing City | 2170.7 | 100 | 1323 | 1359.2 | | Xicheng District | 122 | 5.62 | 24144 | 145 | | Chaoyang District | 373.9 | 17.22 | 8216 | 209.8 | | Fengtai District | 218.6 | 10.07 | 7148 | 113.9 | | Shijingshan District | 61.2 | 2.82 | 7258 | 38.2 | | Haidian District | 348 | 16.03 | 8079 | 235.4 | | Mentougou District | 32.2 | 1.48 | 222 | 24.9 | | Fangshan District | 115.4 | 5.32 | 580 | 81.9 | | Tongzhou District | 150.8 | 6.95 | 1664 | 76.9 | | Shunyi District | 112.8 | 5.2 | 1106 | 63.5 | | Changping District | 206.3 | 9.5 | 1535 | 61.9 | | Daxing District | 176.1 | 8.11 | 1699 | 69.9 | | Huairou District | 40.5 | 1.87 | 191 | 28.4 | | Pinggu District | 44.8 | 2.06 | 472 | 40.4 | | Miyun District | 49 | 2.26 | 220 | 43.7 | | Yanqing District | 34 | 1.57 | 171 | 28.5 |

By the end of 2015, Beijing's permanent resident population was 21.705 million. By household registration, the registered population was 13.452 million, and the permanent migrant population was 8.226 million (37.9%). By urban-rural division, the urban population was 18.777 million, accounting for 86.5% of the permanent resident population. The city's permanent resident birth rate was 7.96‰, the death rate was 4.95‰, and the natural growth rate was 3.01‰. The overall population density of the city was 1,323 persons per square kilometer. Data from Beijing's Sixth National Population Census show that the population densities of the Capital Function Core Zone, Urban Function Expansion Zone, Urban Development New Area, and Ecological Conservation Development Zone were 23,407, 7,488, 958, and 213 persons per square kilometer, respectively.

The population of Beijing is predominantly Han Chinese, but it also includes all 56 ethnic groups of China. Beijing was the first city in China to gather all 56 ethnic groups. Among the ethnic minorities, the Manchu, Hui, and Mongol ethnic groups are the most numerous, each with populations exceeding ten thousand. According to statistics, in 2010, the population of ethnic minorities other than Han was approximately 800,000, accounting for 4.1% of Beijing's total population.

Beijing also has a considerable number of foreign residents. Areas where foreign communities are concentrated include the Beijing CBD (Central Business District), Sanlitun, Wangjing, and near Wudaokou. Among them, the number of South Koreans living in Beijing alone reached 80,000 (estimated figure for 2014).

According to 2006 population data, the ten most common surnames in Beijing, in order, are Wang (10.35%), Zhang (9.4%), Li (8.54%), Liu (6.91%), Zhao (3.45%), Yang, Chen, Sun, Gao, and Ma. This ranking is similar to that of other major cities in northern China.

"Bei Piao Zu" (Beijing Drifters) refers to non-locals from outside Beijing who live and work in Beijing without a Beijing household registration. In their early days in Beijing, they rarely have fixed residences, moving frequently, giving a sense of instability. They themselves, for various reasons, often cannot develop a strong sense of belonging to Beijing, hence the name.

Today, Beijing is facing very serious population problems. Official investigation reports indicate that the current population size of Beijing has already exceeded the carrying capacity of the region's environmental resources. The supply of water, electricity, gas, heating, and coal is perennially tight, especially the shortage of water resources, which has reached a very severe level—so much so that emergency strategic reserve water sources need to be tapped to meet the city's water supply needs. The vast majority of daily necessities such as grain, oil, soy sauce, and vinegar also need to be transported from other provinces, making it very difficult to ensure stable supply. Furthermore, based on the current rate of waste production in Beijing, all the city's landfills will be completely filled within 4-5 years. Concurrently, problems in transportation, housing, healthcare, and education have also placed an overwhelming burden on the entire city.

According to population censuses and sample surveys, Beijing has consistently had the lowest total fertility rate among China's provincial-level administrative regions since 1995. Since 2000, Beijing's total fertility rate has been between 0.66 and 0.71, less than one-third of the replacement level. This is not only lower than other Chinese provinces, but it should be noted that many statistics only account for the population with Beijing household registration.

10. Religion

Religion in Beijing (2010)

• Chinese folk religion, no religion, or atheism (86.26%)
• Buddhism (11.2%)
• Islam (1.76%)
• Christianity (0.78%)

From ancient times to the present, various primitive religions and the indigenous Taoism have flourished and developed in Beijing. Foreign religions such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam have also spread in the Beijing area successively, gradually integrating into the traditional culture of the Chinese nation and Beijing's historical culture, forming the multi-cultural system of Beijing's religious culture. Currently, there are over 100 religious activity sites in Beijing, with more than 500,000 religious believers. Based on Beijing's population in 2000, religious believers account for approximately 4%. Major religions have established their own religious activity sites and religious colleges in Beijing to inherit their respective religious cultures. In 2010, Beijing had 2.2 million Buddhists, accounting for 11.2% of the total population; Muslims accounted for 1.76% of Beijing's population, while Christians accounted for 0.78% of the city's population.

After its emergence in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Taoism began to spread in the Beijing area. During the Northern Wei period, the rulers adopted Taoism as the state religion. The Tianchang Temple, built during the Tang Dynasty, was the first Taoist temple in the Beijing area. During the Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, Taoism had a significant influence in Beijing. In April 1957, the first national representative conference of the Taoist community was held in Beijing, formally establishing the China Taoist Association, with Yue Chongdai serving as the chairman of the first council.

From the Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms period, Buddhism was introduced to the Beijing area. Emperors of successive dynasties, for political and faith-related reasons, mostly promoted Buddhism. In June 1953, the Buddhist Association of China was established in Beijing, with Master Yuanying elected as its president. In February 2010, the Eighth National Congress of the Buddhist Association of China was held in Beijing, with Elder Chuan Yin elected as the new president of the association.

After the Opium War, Christianity gradually spread in Beijing. The Beijing Municipal Catholic Patriotic Association, the Beijing Municipal Catholic Administrative Commission, and the Catholic Diocese of Beijing are the three institutions of Catholicism in Beijing. The Beijing Municipal Catholic Patriotic Association is responsible for all external civil affairs of Catholicism in Beijing.

Islam was introduced to Beijing during the Song and Liao periods. The Niujie Mosque, the oldest in Beijing, was built in 996 AD. During the Yuan Dynasty, a large number of Muslims entered China. At that time, Beijing (the capital of the Yuan Dynasty) had over 10,000 "Hui" people who believed in Islam, with 35 mosques. The Ming government treated the "Hui who contributed to defending the country" with "respect for meritorious officials," constructing and renovating many mosques. Most of the older mosques in Beijing today were built during the Ming Dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, Islam in Beijing expanded from the inner city to the outer city and suburbs, with a significant increase in mosques, greater influence of Islam, and a wider spread of its culture. During the period of the Republic of China on the mainland, the development of Islam in the Beijing area was slow. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, especially following the implementation of the Party's ethnic and religious policies after the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, Islam in the Beijing area entered a golden period in its history. Currently, there are 70 legally registered mosques in the city.

11. Culture

Beijing is a famous Chinese cultural city with a history spanning millennia and also serves as the cultural center of modern China. It is home to several of China's most important museums, which cover the extensive knowledge of China's long history and its connections to the present and future. Some museums focus on specific curatorial themes or particular regions, while others have a more general scope. Among them, the National Museum of China, the Capital Museum, the Beijing Museum of Natural History, the China Geological Museum, the China Aviation Museum, the China Science and Technology Museum, and the Palace Museum are renowned both domestically and internationally for their rich collections and authoritative holdings, attracting numerous visitors. By the end of 2014, Beijing had 171 museums registered with the Beijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage.

11.1 Cultural Heritage

Beijing boasts eight historical and cultural sites inscribed on the "World Heritage List," making it the city with the most entries in China and one of the cities with the highest concentration of world cultural heritage sites globally. The Forbidden City, the Great Wall, the Summer Palace, the Temple of Heaven, the Zhoukoudian Site, the Ming Tombs, the Grand Canal, and the Beijing Central Axis are significant cultural heritages of Beijing.

11.2 Literature

Beijing has produced numerous writers, giving rise to the literary school known as the "Beijing School," which stands in contrast to the "Shanghai School" based in Shanghai. Beijing School writers primarily focus on depicting life while avoiding political themes. This school emphasizes literature as pure art, advocating for "harmony," "restraint," and "appropriateness," and incorporates both realism and romanticism. The style of the Beijing School is simple, natural, and pastoral, celebrating the beauty of human emotions and nature, blending local culture, and using concise, plain, lively, and clear language. Notable Beijing School writers include Nalan Xingde, Ji Xiaolan, Lao She, Lin Yutang, Lin Haiyin, Duanmu Hongliang, Bei Zi, Tang Lusun, and others.

With the development of Chinese-language literature and the internationalization of the Chinese language, an increasing number of Chinese writers, such as Wang Meng, Hai Yan, Feng Tang, Bu Feiyan, Jiang Nan, and An Yiru, have chosen Beijing as their creative hub, producing many outstanding works of Chinese literature.

11.3 Culinary Culture

Modern Beijing cuisine is a fusion of five culinary traditions—Shandong cuisine, market-style dishes, Tan family cuisine, Halal cuisine, and imperial court cuisine—adapted to local Beijing flavors. In its early days, Beijing's dietary habits were quite similar to those of Shandong, leading to a prevalence of Shandong chefs, which made Shandong cuisine the foundation of Beijing cuisine. During the Liao and Yuan dynasties, the increasing presence of ethnic groups such as Mongols and Hui in Beijing influenced the flavors of Beijing cuisine, adding characteristics of lamb dishes. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, Beijing had become the national political, economic, and cultural center, with imperial chefs and the kitchens of high officials concentrated in the city. This led to continuous improvements in cooking techniques and the convergence of major culinary styles from across the country. Beijing cuisine employs a wide variety of cooking methods, excelling in techniques such as quick-frying, roasting, hot-pot boiling, quick-simmering, deep-frying, braising, stir-frying, pan-frying, stewing, simmering, marinating, sugar-pulling, and plain boiling. Among these, the "quick-fry" method is particularly diverse, including oil-quick-fry, sauce-quick-fry, scallion-quick-fry, water-quick-fry, and broth-quick-fry. The flavors emphasize crispiness, tenderness, freshness, and a refreshing taste, while also striving for perfection in color, aroma, taste, presentation, and tableware. Famous Beijing dishes include Peking duck, scallion-fried pork, shredded pork in Beijing sauce, Mongolian hot pot, and shark fin casserole. Time-honored restaurants include Donglaishun, Quanjude, Bianyifang, and Fangshan Restaurant.

11.4 Performing Arts

Beijing is rich in local folk customs. Peking Opera is deeply beloved by many residents, and its rhythmic melodies can occasionally be heard on the streets. The origins of Peking Opera can be traced back to several ancient local operas. In 1790, four major troupes from Anhui—Sanqing, Sixi, Chungong, and Hechun—performed in Beijing with unprecedented success. These troupes often collaborated with artists from Hubei who performed Han tunes, leading to the birth of a new opera form that combined the Anhui "erhuang" and Hubei "xipi" styles while incorporating elements from Kunqu, Qin opera, and Bangzi. This new art form became known as Peking Opera. Over its 200-year development, Peking Opera has become increasingly localized in its lyrics, dialogue, and phonology. Instruments like the erhu and jinghu have also integrated features from multiple ethnic groups, ultimately maturing into a sophisticated art form. Peking Opera combines singing, dance, martial arts, music, visual arts, and literature.

Through the long-term stage practices of countless artists, Peking Opera has developed a set of standardized and rhythmic conventions in literature, performance, music, vocal techniques, percussion, makeup, and facial masks. These conventions are rich in artistic expression yet strict in their application. From its inception, Peking Opera was performed in imperial courts, which distinguished its development from that of local operas. It required a broader representation of life, a wider variety of character types, more comprehensive and complete skills, and higher aesthetic standards for stage imagery. However, this also led to a reduction in its folk and rustic charm, as well as a dilution of its simple and bold style. Consequently, its performance art tends to blend realism and abstraction, transcending the limitations of stage space and time to achieve an artistic realm of "conveying spirit through form, combining form and spirit." Performances demand precision and subtlety, with every detail contributing to the drama; vocal techniques require melodious and expressive singing; and martial scenes emphasize elegance over sheer intensity, excelling in "civilized martial performances." On November 16, 2010, Peking Opera was inscribed on the "Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity." In addition to Peking Opera, Beijing is also home to traditional arts such as shuanghuang (a two-person comic act), xiangsheng (crosstalk), pingshu (storytelling), acrobatics, jingyun dagu (a drum song style), modern drama, iron clapper storytelling, cloisonné, ivory carving, lacquer carving, cricket cages, and sugar-figure blowing.

In the 21st century, Beijing has become the center of China's mainland music industry. Most mainland musicians choose to develop their careers in Beijing, significantly contributing to the city's vibrant music culture. Beijing's rock scene has witnessed the rise and fall of Chinese rock music and remains its heart. Although rock music is no longer as prominent as it once was and is currently in a state of maintenance, Beijing still boasts a large number of rock fans. The city has numerous underground bands of diverse genres, primarily performing in bars. Notable bands include New Pants, Underground Baby, Reflector, Milk Coffee, and Convenience Store. Beijing's music scene is characterized by non-mainstream, rebellious, and innovative cultural traits.

The Beijing National Stadium, also known as the "Bird's Nest," served as the main venue for the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2022 Winter Olympics. It now functions as a major performance center in Beijing.

Beijing's performing arts market is highly prosperous, with over 10,000 domestic and international concerts, music performances, operas, and plays staged annually across nearly a hundred venues in the city. World-renowned symphony orchestras, as well as famous musicians and groups like Yanni, Secret Garden, Seiji Ozawa, and Itzhak Perlman, have performed in Beijing.

Beijing hosts three major annual international performance seasons: the Beijing International Music Festival, the Beijing International Drama Season, and the Beijing International Dance Season. The Beijing International Music Festival takes place from mid-October to mid-November each year, featuring over 30 performances by renowned orchestras such as the Berlin Philharmonic, the New York Philharmonic, and the China Philharmonic Orchestra, as well as famous musicians like José Carreras, Krzysztof Penderecki, and Yo-Yo Ma. The festival covers a wide range of musical styles and forms, including symphonies, operas, and jazz. The Beijing International Drama Season is held in late spring and early summer, with theater groups from around the world and within China presenting over 50 performances in a month. Stars like Sarah Brightman have also been invited to perform. The Beijing International Dance Season spans the winter and New Year period, featuring renowned ballet companies such as The Royal Ballet from the UK.

Major performance venues in Beijing include the National Centre for the Performing Arts, the Bird's Nest, the Poly Theatre, the Zhongshan Music Hall, the Beijing Concert Hall, the Great Hall of the People, the Oriental Pioneer Theater, the Beijing People's Art Theatre Small Theater, the Beijing Workers' Stadium, the Beijing Workers' Gymnasium, the Capital Indoor Stadium, and the Fengtai Sports Center.

11.5 Art Districts

With the revival of Chinese culture, arts, and the fashion industry, Beijing, as the capital, serves as China's art center, fashion hub, and cultural center. A landmark of contemporary art in Beijing is the 798 Art District, located in the Dashanzi area of Chaoyang District. Originally the Beijing No. 3 Radio Factory, its buildings mostly feature Bauhaus-style architecture from East Germany. From the 1980s to the 1990s, the factory declined, but starting in 2002, artists from around Beijing and beyond began gathering there due to low rents, gradually forming an artistic community. After 2006, with China's development of cultural and creative industries and Beijing's efforts to become a world-class city, the 798 Art District became the core of a plan to establish a contemporary art center for China and the world. Surrounding areas such as Caochangdi, Huantie, and even Songzhuang in Beijing's outer suburbs have become part of this vast artistic community.

11.6 HutongsHutongs played a decisive role in the formation and existence of Beijing's culture. Compared to the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven, and the Summer Palace, which represent imperial culture, hutongs can be considered the epitome of Beijing's folk culture. Reflecting the architectural features of Beijing's courtyard houses and the local customs and traditions, hutongs are regarded as the representative and carrier of Beijing's grassroots culture, rich in history and cultural significance. Historically, Beijing was renowned for its numerous hutongs, as captured in the folk saying, "There are 3,600 famous hutongs, and countless unnamed ones, as many as the hairs on an ox." According to the Yuan Dynasty's Xijin Zhi, Dadu (the capital of the Yuan Dynasty) had "384 fire lanes and 29 hutongs." In the Ming Dynasty, Zhang Jue's Collection of Streets, Alleys, and Hutongs in the Five Districts of the Capital recorded approximately 1,170 streets and hutongs in Beijing, with about 459 directly referred to as hutongs. During the Qing Dynasty, Zhu Yixin's Draft Gazetteer of Streets and Alleys in the Capital listed 2,076 streets and hutongs in Beijing, including 978 directly named as hutongs. In 1944, Japanese researcher Tada Teiichi noted in Beijing Place Names that there were 3,200 hutongs in Beijing at the time. Statistics from 1949 showed that Beijing's urban area had 6,074 named streets and alleys, including 1,330 hutongs, 274 streets, 111 lanes, 85 avenues, and 71 residential compounds. Conventionally, all of these—hutongs, streets, lanes, avenues, and compounds—are collectively referred to as hutongs.

12. International Friendship Provinces/States (Counties/Prefectures)

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Beijing first established a sister-city relationship with Tokyo, Japan, on March 14, 1979. Subsequently, Beijing's international exchanges have gradually expanded, forming sister-city relationships with over 50 cities across five continents, including New York, Madrid, Cairo, Kyiv, Seoul, and Berlin, most of which are capital cities.

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Tongzhou District

Miyun District

Ethnicity

Han 96% Manchu 2% Hui 1.6% Mongol 0.3%

Platycladus orientalis, Sophora japonica

Rose, Chrysanthemum