Nanjing (南京)

1. Introduction

Nanjing, abbreviated as "Ning", also known as Jinling, Jianye, Jiankang, and Jiangning, is the capital city of Jiangsu Province, a sub-provincial city in the People's Republic of China, an important central city in East China, a core city of the Yangtze River Delta, one of China's comprehensive transportation and communication hubs, and a national center for science and education. It is also the headquarters of the Eastern Theater Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army. Located in the southwestern part of Jiangsu Province, along the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, Nanjing is a key industrial city in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration. It serves as the political, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, and information center of Jiangsu Province, an advanced manufacturing base, and an important economic city in the Yangtze River Delta economic zone. Additionally, it is a vital financial, cultural, scientific, educational, and transportation hub in the province and the core city of the Nanjing Metropolitan Area. The municipal government is located at No. 41 Beijing East Road, Xuanwu District. Nanjing is one of the first batch of national historical and cultural cities and an important cradle of Chinese civilization. It has long been the political, economic, and cultural center of southern China. As early as 350,000 to 600,000 years ago, the Nanjing Man lived in the Tangshan area. The city boasts a civilization history of over 7,000 years, a city-building history of more than 3,100 years, and a capital history of nearly 500 years. The excavation of the Changgan Ancient City has pushed Nanjing's city-building history back to the late Shang Dynasty over 3,100 years ago.

The city administers 11 districts with a total area of 6,582.31 square kilometers. As a renowned political and cultural city, Nanjing has a history of over 2,500 years of city-building and nearly 500 years as a capital. It served as the capital for various dynasties and regimes, including the Eastern Wu, Eastern Jin, Southern Dynasties (Song, Qi, Liang, Chen), Southern Tang, Ming Dynasty, Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, and the Republic of China. Hence, it is known as the "Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties" and the "Capital of Ten Dynasties." Historically, Nanjing has long been the political and cultural center of southern China and is often regarded as the orthodox seat of Chinese civilization. As one of the first batch of national historical and cultural cities, Nanjing is rich in tourism resources.

Nanjing is also renowned as a major academic hub in the Jiangnan region. Eight universities in Nanjing are listed among the top 100 key universities in China, ranking third among major cities. It is also an important center for science, education, and culture in China. According to the 2016 Nature Index released by the Nature Publishing Group, Nanjing ranks among the top three cities in China for scientific research. The city leads in research and development expenditure and the number of invention patents. Emerging industries thrive here, with software and information services ranking fourth nationally, new display industries ranking second, and smart grid industries ranking first. The city hosts multiple industrial parks, such as Nanjing Software Valley, Smart Grid Valley, Biomedical Valley, and Satellite Application Industrial Park. The Hexi CBD in Nanjing is the second-largest CBD in East China, second only to Lujiazui CBD. Nanjing is home to the Nanjing Library, one of China's three major libraries, and the Nanjing Museum, one of the three major museums in China. As the former capital of the Nationalist Government, Nanjing also features numerous Republic of China-era buildings, such as the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum and the Presidential Palace.

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2. History

2.1. Ancient Times

The Nanjing area has been inhabited by ancient humans for 1 to 1.2 million years. The Nanjing Homo erectus discovered in the Tangshan Hulu Cave dates from between 200,000 and over 600,000 years ago. Around 7,000 years ago, primitive Neolithic villages, represented by the Beiyinyangying culture, emerged. About 3,000 years ago, coinciding with the Shang and Zhou dynasties in the Central Plains, dense primitive settlements appeared in the Qinhuai River basin, known as the Hushu culture. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the earliest cities in the Nanjing area were formed on the basis of these settlements. In 571 BC (the first year of King Ling of Zhou), the State of Chu established the Tangyi in present-day Liuhe District, marking the beginning of Nanjing's administrative establishment. According to legend, King Fuchai of Wu built a Yecheng in Nanjing in 495 BC. In 473 BC (the fourth year of King Yuan of Zhou), Fan Li, a senior official of the State of Yue, built Yuecheng on the south bank of the Qinhuai River outside present-day Zhonghuamen, marking the beginning of the urban construction history of the current Nanjing city area. In 333 BC (the 36th year of King Xian of Zhou), King Wei of Chu built the Jinlingyi on Stone Mountain (Shitoushan), establishing the first administrative seat within the current Nanjing city area, from which Nanjing's alternative name "Jinling" originates. In 210 BC (the 37th year of Qin Shi Huang), Jinlingyi was changed to Moling County. Until the end of the Han dynasty, the present Nanjing area only had county-level administrative divisions.

2.2. Six Dynasties Period

In the late Eastern Han dynasty, Sun Quan, who controlled the Jiangdong region, moved his administrative seat to Moling in 211 AD, building the Stone City fortress on the old site of Jinlingyi. The following year, he renamed Moling to Jianye. In 229 AD, Sun Quan declared himself emperor and established the Eastern Wu, moving the capital from Wuchang to Jianye, which was described as having "Zhongshan Mountain coiling like a dragon, Stone City crouching like a tiger," thus inaugurating Nanjing's history as a capital. After the Western Jin conquered Eastern Wu, Jianye was renamed Jianye in 282 AD (the third year of the Taikang era) and then Jiankang in 313 AD (the first year of the Jianxing era). Only thirty-six years after the Western Jin's conquest of Wu, it fell due to the Yongjia Disturbances and the Upheaval of the Five Barbarians. In 317 AD, Sima Rui, Prince of Langya, established the Eastern Jin in Jiankang, leading to a large-scale migration of population from the north. During the subsequent 270-plus years of great division between north and south, Jiankang became the seat of legitimate Chinese imperial authority.

After the fall of the Eastern Jin in 420 AD, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen dynasties successively established their capitals in Jiankang. Together with Eastern Wu and Eastern Jin, they are known as the Six Dynasties. Jiankang during the Six Dynasties was quite prosperous. It is said that during the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang, the city's registered households reached 280,000, marking Nanjing's first historical peak. In 548 AD (the second year of the Taiqing era), the Hou Jing Disturbance erupted, dealing a heavy blow to Jiankang. After the establishment of the Chen dynasty, Jiankang recovered. In 589 AD, after the Sui army destroyed Chen, Jiankang was completely razed and turned into farmland, with only Jiangzhou established at Stone City, bringing Nanjing's first period of prosperity to an end. The Six Dynasties each had relatively short reigns, and transitions between dynasties were relatively smooth, with systems and culture being inherited and continued. Situated between the two great unified periods of Qin-Han and Sui-Tang, this era was an important stage in the southward shift of China's economic and cultural center. As the political, economic, and cultural center of the Six Dynasties, Jiankang was the central stage for the establishment of Six Dynasties institutions, giving Nanjing a distinctive character among the "Four Great Ancient Capitals."

2.3. Tang and Song Periods

During the Sui and Tang dynasties, although the Jiankang site with its Six Dynasties palaces had been leveled to the ground in the Sui dynasty, the geographical advantages led to the redevelopment of this area. In the early Tang, Jiangning Commandery was established, later replaced by Shengzhou. After the fall of the Tang, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Yang Wu changed it to Jinling Prefecture and constructed an unprecedentedly large Jinling city. In 937 AD, Li Bian, the founding emperor of the Southern Tang, established his capital in Jinling, renaming it Jiangning Prefecture and expanding the city. The Southern Tang revived Jinling city. After the Later Zhou's campaign against the Southern Tang, Jinling stood in opposition to the northern central authority of Later Zhou. In 975 AD, after the Northern Song destroyed the Southern Tang, Shengzhou was re-established and later changed back to Jiangning Prefecture.

In the third year of the Jianyan era of the Southern Song (1129 AD), Jin troops advanced south, leading to the Jianyan southward crossing. Emperor Gaozong of Song changed Jiangning Prefecture to Jiankang Prefecture. Jiankang was briefly designated as the Southern Song capital. In 1138, after Emperor Gaozong formally established the capital in Lin'an (Hangzhou), Jiankang became the seat of the Jiangnan East Circuit, serving as a secondary capital with a temporary imperial palace. Although not the emperor's actual residence, Jiankang remained the Southern Song's foremost military frontline throughout the dynasty. During the Yuan dynasty, it was renamed Jijin Route and was a center of the textile industry in the southeast.

2.4. Ming and Qing Periods

In 1356, Zhu Yuanzhang captured Jijin and renamed it Yingtian Prefecture. Nanjing became a base for resisting the Yuan. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming dynasty, designating Yingtian as the capital. That same year, Ming troops captured the Yuan capital Dadu, making Nanjing the capital of a unified empire for the first time (the previous Six Dynasties, the Yang Wu/Southern Tang of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, and the Southern Song were all regimes holding only the southern regions). The following year, the construction of Nanjing city began, ushering in its second historical peak. The total population of the capital in the early Ming was about 700,000, including approximately 470,000 residents and 200,000 garrison troops, making it the most populous city in the country at the time. The Nanjing City Wall, the Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum, and the Ming Palace ruins that survive today were built during this period.

In 1402, Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, launched the Jingnan Campaign, seizing the throne from his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor Zhu Yunwen. In 1421, he moved the capital to Shuntian Prefecture (Beijing), demoting Yingtian Prefecture to the secondary capital Nanjing, establishing institutions like the Nanjing Six Ministries. Although the political center shifted to Beijing, by the mid-Ming period, Nanjing's population reached 1.2 million, making it the world's largest capital city at the time. Throughout the Ming dynasty, Nanjing remained the political, economic, and cultural center of southern China and indeed the whole country. In 1644, Li Zicheng captured Beijing, and the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide. The Prince of Fu, Zhu Yousong, established the Southern Ming in Nanjing. In 1645, Qing forces captured Nanjing, demoting it to Jiangning Prefecture, although it was still commonly called Nanjing.

In the early Qing, Jiangning was the provincial capital of Jiangnan Province. During the Qianlong era, the Collected Statutes of the Great Qing formally recorded the division of Jiangnan Province into Jiangsu and Anhui provinces. Until the late Qing, Jiangning was the seat of the Liangjiang Viceroy, who oversaw Jiangsu (including Shanghai), Anhui, and Jiangxi provinces. Simultaneously, the Jiangning Provincial Administration Commissioner was established in Jiangning, administering Jiangning Prefecture and the prefectures north of the Yangtze in Jiangsu Province: Yangzhou, Huai'an, Xuzhou, Haizhou Directly-Administered Department, Tongzhou Directly-Administered Department, and Haimen Subprefecture. The Anhui Provincial Administration Commissioner, responsible for Anhui's civil affairs, was also stationed in Jiangning for a long time before 1780. A Manchu city was established east of Jiangning city, and Eight Banners troops were stationed at the old Ming Palace site under the jurisdiction of the Jiangning General. The Qing court established a large-scale Jiangning Weaving Bureau in Jiangning to produce silk textiles for imperial needs, giving Jiangning significant economic importance. During the Qianlong era, the Jiangning Weaving Bureau's offices served as the Jiangning Temporary Imperial Palace.

In August 1842, after being defeated in the First Opium War, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing with Britain, whose forces were anchored off Jiangning. In March 1853, the Taiping Army captured Jiangning and established their capital there, renaming it "Heavenly Capital" (Tianjing). In July 1864, Zeng Guoquan, brother of Zeng Guofan, led the Xiang Army to breach the Heavenly Capital, followed by looting and arson. Post-war Jiangning was extremely desolate for a time. Although the Treaty of Tianjin listed Jiangning as a treaty port, it was not until 1899 that a commercial port was formally opened at Xiaguan. With the opening of the Shanghai-Nanjing Railway in 1906 and the Tianjin-Pukou Railway in 1911, Jiangning revived as a transportation hub at the intersection of north-south railway and east-west waterway arteries.

2.5. Modern Era

The Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty. On December 2, 1911, revolutionaries occupied Nanjing. On January 1, 1912, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China was established in Nanjing, with Sun Yat-sen assuming the office of Provisional President. Jiangning Prefecture was renamed Nanjing Prefecture. Shortly after, Yuan Shikai moved the capital of the Republic of China to Beijing.

On March 24, 1927, the National Revolutionary Army captured Nanjing during the Northern Expedition. After the April 12 Incident, Chiang Kai-shek established the Nationalist Government in Nanjing on April 18, designating Nanjing as the capital and establishing Nanjing Special Municipality that same year. The decade from 1927 to 1937 is known as the "Nanjing Decade," during which large-scale capital construction took place, laying a solid foundation for Nanjing's modern urban development. By 1937, Nanjing's urban population had grown to over 1 million, making it one of China's six largest cities at the time.

In July 1937, the War of Resistance against Japan broke out in full scale. After Shanghai fell on November 12, the Nationalist Government and schools, factories, etc., in the capital began relocating westward. On December 13, Japanese forces captured Nanjing, followed by the Nanjing Massacre. The atrocities committed by the Japanese army lasted for over six weeks from December 13, 1937, until February 1938. According to the verdicts and investigations of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal after World War II, over 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians and prisoners of war were killed by Japanese troops during the massacre. In the first month alone, approximately 20,000 Chinese women were raped and killed, and one-third of Nanjing's buildings were burned down by Japanese forces. In March 1940, the Wang Jingwei regime was established in Nanjing. On May 5, 1946, the Nationalist Government returned the capital to Nanjing from Chongqing. In April 1949, the Chinese Communist Party launched the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign, and the People's Liberation Army occupied Nanjing.

After the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge opened to traffic in 1968, a number of key enterprises were successively built in the northeastern suburbs, southwestern suburbs, and the Jiangbei area's Dachang, forming three industrial zones. After the reform and opening-up policy began in the late 1970s, Nanjing's urban landscape began to change significantly. In 1990, Nanjing was listed as a city with independent planning status in the state budget, granting it economic management authority equivalent to a provincial level. In 1993, the central government decided to abolish independent planning status for provincial capital cities. In 1994, it was designated as a sub-provincial city. Subsequently, the pace of urban renewal in Nanjing accelerated. On one hand, large-scale renovation of old urban areas was carried out. By 2003, within the 40-square-kilometer old city inside the Ming city wall, only 5 square kilometers remained unrenovated. On the other hand, large new urban districts were planned and constructed around the traditional central urban area.

In recent years, Nanjing has developed rapidly. It has successively hosted the 10th National Games of China, the World Historical and Cultural Cities Expo, the third round of negotiations between the Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits (ARATS) and the Straits Exchange Foundation (SEF), the 12th China-EU Leaders' Meeting, among others. In August 2014, it hosted the second Summer Youth Olympic Games.### 2.6. History of Administrative Divisions After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Nanjing became a municipality directly under the Central People's Government, with 13 districts under its jurisdiction. In August 1949, one suburban district was added. In October, the Dahuangzhou and Xiaohuangzhou areas of Nanjing were placed under the administration of Hexian County. In December, Jurong and Jiangning counties from southern Jiangsu, Dangtu County (excluding Dangtu City) from southern Anhui, Liuhe County from northern Jiangsu, and Jiangpu and Hexian counties from northern Anhui were placed under the leadership of Nanjing. After the establishment of the East China Military and Administrative Committee in 1950, Nanjing came under its leadership. In January, the East China Bureau decided to return Jiangning and Jurong counties to the Zhenjiang Special District of southern Jiangsu, and Liuhe County to the Yangzhou Special District of northern Jiangsu. Dangtu, Jiangpu, and Hexian counties were transferred to Anhui Province. In January 1950, the Nanjing Municipal People's Government was placed under the leadership of the newly established East China Military and Administrative Committee, while the Government Administration Council established an office in Nanjing. In September 1952, the Nanjing Municipality was merged with the southern and northern Jiangsu administrative regions to establish Jiangsu Province. On November 15, 1952, Nanjing was downgraded from a municipality to a provincial city, with its Municipal People's Government coming under the leadership of the Jiangsu Provincial People's Government. On January 1, 1953, the Jiangsu Provincial People's Government was established, and Nanjing became the provincial capital of Jiangsu. In April 2002 and February 2013, Nanjing underwent two adjustments to its administrative divisions. Nanjing currently administers 11 districts: Xuanwu, Gulou, Qinhuai, Jianye, Yuhuatai, Qixia, Pukou, Jiangning, Liuhe, Lishui, and Gaochun. In 2015, the national-level Nanjing Jiangbei New Area was officially established. In 2016, the State Council of the People's Republic of China officially established the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration, with Nanjing as an important city.

3. Geography

3.1. Location

Nanjing is situated along the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, connecting to the Jianghuai Plain to the north. Located at the center of the lower Yangtze region, it is the southern city closest to the Central Plains and North China. Its geographical coordinates range from 31°14′ to 32°37′ north latitude and 118°22′ to 119°14′ east longitude. The maximum straight-line distance from north to south is over 140 kilometers, and from east to west, it is 80 kilometers (as the municipality directly under the central government and the provincial capital of Jiangsu after the founding of the People's Republic of China). The total area of the city is approximately 6,587.02 square kilometers. Nanjing is located in the southwestern part of Jiangsu Province, bordering the cities of Yangzhou, Changzhou, and Zhenjiang within the province to the east. To the south, west, and north, it neighbors Xuancheng City, Ma'anshan City, and Chuzhou City in Anhui Province, respectively. The total length of the municipal boundary is about 730 kilometers (as the municipality directly under the central government and the provincial capital of Jiangsu after the founding of the People's Republic of China).

3.2. Topography and Geology

The geomorphological features of Nanjing belong to the Ningzhenyang hilly area within the Jiangnan Hills. Among these, low mountains and hills cover an area of 4,255.07 square kilometers, rivers and water bodies cover 752.06 square kilometers, and polder lands cover 1,589.88 square kilometers. In terms of landform composition, low mountains account for 3.5% of the total land area, hills for 4.3%, uplands for 53%, and plains, depressions, rivers, and lakes for 39.2%. The Yangtze River flows into Nanjing from the southwest, turns east here, and enters Zhenjiang. The Qinhuai River and the Chu River join the Yangtze from its southern and northern banks, respectively.

The main urban area of Nanjing is surrounded by the Zhongshan Mountains to the east, south, and north, with the river to the west. The Zhongshan Mountains generally run east-west and form the western section of the Ningzhen Mountains, constituting the main mountain range in the part of Nanjing south of the Yangtze River. They consist of three anticlines: the northern, central, and southern branches of Zhongshan. The northern branch lies along the southern bank of the Yangtze River in the northern suburbs of Nanjing, including Qixia Mountain, Nanxiang Mountain, and Mufu Mountain from east to west. Lion Mountain on the west bank of the Yangtze River north of Nanjing city is an extension of Mufu Mountain. The central branch includes Zijin Mountain (i.e., Zhongshan) east of Nanjing city and its extensions within the city. The southern branch of Zhongshan is located in Jiangning in the southern suburbs, including Tang Mountain, Fang Mountain, and Niushou Mountain from east to west. Additionally, remnants of the Maoshan Mountains are distributed in Lishui and Gaochun. North of the Yangtze River, Dongping Mountain and Ye Mountain are in the north of Liuhe District, Lingyan Mountain is in the southeast, and the Laoshan mountainous area is in the southwest of Pukou District.

The central branch of Zhongshan, centered on Zijin Mountain, is the most important series of mountains in Nanjing, renowned as "Zhongshan coiling like a dragon, Stone City crouching like a tiger." Zijin Mountain, also known as Zhongshan, has a main peak elevation of 448.9 meters, which is the highest geographical point in Nanjing. Zijin Mountain extends westward into the city, connecting to Fugui Mountain inside Taiping Gate, Jiuhua Mountain (Fuzhou Mountain) on the south bank of Xuanwu Lake, and Beijige (Jilong Mountain). Further west, it links to Gulou Hill, Wutai Mountain, Qingliang Mountain, and the loess uplands formed by ancient Yangtze alluvium that reach the riverbank. In ancient times, Qingliang Mountain was by the river, with the Qinhuai River flowing into the Yangtze at its foot. During the Three Kingdoms period, Stone City was built on Qingliang Mountain to "control the river and guard the Huai," making its location strategically vital. The modern course of the Yangtze River lies further west than in ancient times, leaving large areas of newly accumulated land in the Hexi area west of Qingliang Mountain.

Nanjing is relatively rich in mineral resources, with 54 types of minerals discovered, of which nearly 30 have exploitable value. The Meishan Iron Mine in Yuhuatai District is the largest underground iron mine in China. Additionally, four other minerals rank within the top six in China in terms of reserves. The strontium ore (celestine) reserves and grade in Lishui are the highest in Southeast Asia, and Liuhe has sapphire deposits. Nanjing also possesses geothermal resources, including Tangshan Hot Spring, Tangquan Hot Spring, and Zhenzhuquan Hot Spring.

3.3. Water Systems

The Yangtze River enters Nanjing from Tongjing in Jiangning, flows north to Xiaguan, then turns east and exits Nanjing at Longtan to enter Zhenjiang, covering a length of about 95 kilometers within Nanjing. Larger sandbars in the river include Bagua Zhou and Jiangxin Zhou. A water level station is set up at the Nanjing section of the Yangtze River in Xiaguan. The historical average low water level is 2.98 meters, the flood season warning level is 8.5 meters, and the once-in-a-century flood level is 10.6 meters. The Qinhuai River is Nanjing's most famous regional river. Its northern and southern sources are at Donglu Mountain in Lishui District and the southern foothills of Baohua Mountain in Jurong City, respectively. They converge at Fang Mountain in Jiangning and then flow to outside Tongji Gate of Nanjing city, where they split into inner and outer branches. The inner Qinhuai is the "Ten-Mile Qinhuai," flowing through the southern part of Nanjing city. After exiting the West Water Gate, it rejoins the outer Qinhuai and flows into the Yangtze River. Zijin Mountain and its extensions traversing Nanjing city form the watershed for the urban water systems. Streams on the southern side, such as Qingxi, Zhenzhu River, and Jinxiang River, flow into the inner Qinhuai River. On the northern side, the Jinchuan River system connects with the Xuanwu Lake system. The area west of Nanjing city was originally the ancient course of the Yangtze River. Current lakes like Mochou Lake and Nanhu are remnants left by the northward shift of the ancient Yangtze. Other important water bodies in Nanjing include the Chu River flowing through Liuhe District, Gucheng Lake in Gaochun, and Shijiu Lake in Lishui.

3.4. Climate

Nanjing has a relatively typical northern subtropical monsoon climate. Although it is only 300 kilometers from the East China Sea, its maritime climate characteristics are not pronounced. The near-surface climate in Nanjing is influenced by alternating winter and summer monsoons, resulting in distinct seasonal changes and significant temperature differences between winter and summer. The annual average temperature is 16.4°C, with the coldest month (January) averaging 3.1°C and the hottest month (July) averaging 28.4°C. Nanjing receives abundant precipitation, with an annual average of 112.9 rainy days and an annual average rainfall of 1,144 millimeters. Winters and summers are long, while spring and autumn are short. Spring typically begins around March 23 in the urban area, summer around May 19, autumn around September 28, and winter around November 19. Winters are mostly controlled by the Siberian High or Mongolian High, with prevailing northeast winds. The extreme minimum temperature recorded was -17.9°C (on January 11, 1955, in Gaochun), and the urban area's extreme minimum was -14.0°C (on January 6, 1955). Summer is clearly divided into the rainy Meiyu (plum rain) period in early summer and the Fu drought period in midsummer. The urban area typically enters the Meiyu period around June 23 and exits around July 14, lasting about 21 days. During Meiyu, precipitation is particularly abundant, often with heavy rain, high humidity, low pressure, and little sunshine. After Meiyu, midsummer begins, mostly under the control of the Western Pacific Subtropical High, characterized by clear, hot, and dry weather with high temperatures and little rain, and prevailing southerly winds. The extreme maximum temperature recorded was 41.6°C (on August 12, 2013, in Lishui), and the urban area's extreme maximum was 40.7°C (on August 22, 1959). Nanjing was once grouped with Chongqing and Wuhan as one of the "Three Furnaces." However, in recent years, Nanjing's high-temperature intensity and duration have been less than those of Chongqing, Wuhan, Jiujiang, and other cities along the Yangtze, making the "furnace" label a thing of the past (climate).

Nanjing Meteorological Data (Average data from 1991 to 2020, extreme data from 1951 to present)

| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | |------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|------|------|------|------| | Record high °C (°F) | 21.0 (69.8) | 27.7 (81.9) | 30.3 (86.5) | 34.2 (93.6) | 37.5 (99.5) | 38.1 (100.6) | 40.0 (104.0) | 40.7 (105.3) | 39.0 (102.2) | 38.1 (100.6) | 29.2 (84.6) | 23.1 (73.6) | 40.7 (105.3) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.4 (45.3) | 10.1 (50.2) | 15.1 (59.2) | 21.4 (70.5) | 26.6 (79.9) | 29.2 (84.6) | 32.4 (90.3) | 31.9 (89.4) | 27.9 (82.2) | 22.8 (73.0) | 16.6 (61.9) | 10.0 (50.0) | 21.0 (69.7) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.1 (37.6) | 5.6 (42.1) | 10.1 (50.2) | 16.2 (61.2) | 21.5 (70.7) | 25.0 (77.0) | 28.4 (83.1) | 27.9 (82.2) | 23.7 (74.7) | 18.0 (64.4) | 11.5 (52.7) | 5.4 (41.7) | 16.4 (61.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | 0.0 (32.0) | 2.0 (35.6) | 6.0 (42.8) | 11.6 (52.9) | 17.1 (62.8) | 21.4 (70.5) | 25.1 (77.2) | 24.8 (76.6) | 20.3 (68.5) | 14.2 (57.6) | 7.7 (45.9) | 1.9 (35.4) | 12.7 (54.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | -14.0 (6.8) | -13.0 (8.6) | -7.1 (19.2) | -0.2 (31.6) | 5.0 (41.0) | 11.8 (53.2) | 16.8 (62.2) | 16.9 (62.4) | 7.7 (45.9) | 0.2 (32.4) | -6.3 (20.7) | -13.1 (8.4) | -14.0 (6.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 50.2 (1.98) | 53.5 (2.11) | 79.7 (3.14) | 82.4 (3.24) | 83.8 (3.30) | 193.4 (7.61) | 226.8 (8.93) | 158.5 (6.24) | 72.9 (2.87) | 55.5 (2.19) | 52.3 (2.06) | 35.0 (1.38) | 1,144 (45.05) | | Average precipitation days | 9.2 | 8.9 | 10.9 | 9.6 | 9.9 | 10.6 | 11.7 | 12.1 | 7.8 | 7.3 | 7.7 | 7.2 | 112.9 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 73 | 71 | 69 | 68 | 69 | 76 | 78 | 79 | 76 | 73 | 74 | 71 | 73 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 121.2 | 124.5 | 153.2 | 180.6 | 190.4 | 155.4 | 195.4 | 197.6 | 165.0 | 168.6 | 145.4 | 135.1 | 1,932.4 |

3.5. Environmental Pollution

Nanjing is a heavy industrial city with extremely high pollutant emissions. Its coal consumption is several times that of Beijing. In 2017, the coal consumption of industries above a designated size in Nanjing was 31.9009 million tons, while Beijing's total coal consumption in the same year was less than 5 million tons.

Although air quality in Nanjing has improved significantly in recent years, levels of PM2.5, O3, and NO2 still exceed China's National Ambient Air Quality Standard Grade II. According to the "2019 Nanjing Environmental Status Bulletin," the annual average PM2.5 concentration in Nanjing in 2019 was 40 µg/m³, and the annual average PM10 concentration was 69 µg/m³. The number of days with air quality meeting China's National Ambient Air Quality Standard Grade II was 255 days, with a compliance rate of 69.9%.

Heavy air pollution frequently occurs in Nanjing during winter and spring, and the highest-level heavy pollution alerts have been issued. During the severe smog event in central and eastern China in 2013, Nanjing experienced five consecutive days of severe air pollution and nine consecutive days of heavy pollution. The instantaneous PM2.5 concentration even reached 943 µg/m³ at 11:00 on December 3, 2013. Nanjing issued a red alert for air pollution on the evening of December 4, 2013, leading to the suspension of classes in all primary and secondary schools and kindergartens, with boarding students sent home.

Nanjing is occasionally affected by dust from northwestern China and Mongolia during spring, causing PM10 pollution. On May 7, 2016, PM10 levels in Nanjing once reached 577 µg/m³, and on May 6, 2017, they reached 432 µg/m³.

Acid rain is a prominent issue in Nanjing. In 2019, the frequency of acid rain in Nanjing was 22.0%, with an average precipitation pH of 5.51.

4. Administrative Divisions

In the early years of the People's Republic of China, Nanjing was one of the 13 municipalities directly under the central government. By the end of 1952, Nanjing merged with the Southern Jiangsu Administrative District and the Northern Jiangsu Administrative District to form Jiangsu Province. The Jiangsu Provincial People's Government was established on January 1 of the following year, with Nanjing as its capital.

When the Nanjing Municipal People's Government was established in May 1949, the city's jurisdiction covered an area of 559.28 square kilometers (city proper). In 1953, a number of townships and towns from the former counties of Jiangning, Jurong, and Luhe were placed under Nanjing's administration. In the early stages of the Great Leap Forward, the three counties of Jiangning, Jiangpu, and Luhe were placed under Nanjing's jurisdiction but were later separated and restored to their original administrative setups. These three counties were again incorporated into Nanjing in 1971. In 1983, the two counties of Lishui and Gaochun were incorporated into Nanjing's jurisdiction, bringing the city's administrative area largely to its current scale (city proper). In 2000, Jiangning County was abolished and converted into a district. In 2002, Jiangpu County merged with Pukou District, and Luhe County merged with Dachang District to form the new Pukou District and Luhe District, respectively. In 2013, Qinhuai District merged with Baixia District, and Gulou District merged with Xiaguan District to form the new Qinhuai District and Gulou District, respectively. Lishui and Gaochun counties were abolished and converted into districts.

Nanjing currently administers 11 municipal districts: Xuanwu District, Gulou District, Qinhuai District, Jianye District, Yuhuatai District, Qixia District, Jiangning District, Pukou District, Luhe District, Lishui District, and Gaochun District. Among these, Xuanwu, Gulou, Qinhuai, Jianye, Qixia, and Yuhuatai are referred to as the main urban districts. As of January 2019, Nanjing had a total of 100 subdistricts and towns, comprising 94 subdistricts and 6 towns. The six main urban districts, along with Pukou District and Jiangning District, are entirely composed of subdistrict offices. Luhe District consists of 11 subdistrict offices and 1 town; Lishui District includes 5 subdistrict offices and 3 towns; and Gaochun District comprises 6 subdistrict offices and 2 towns.

Additionally, the Nanjing Jiangbei New Area Direct Administration Zone was established in 2017. The Nanjing Jiangbei New Area serves as an agency dispatched by the Nanjing Municipal Government, administering several subdistricts from the former Pukou District and Luhe District. The Jiangbei New Area People's Court was officially established in 2020. The Nanjing Zidong Area was established in 2019 as a key development zone for Nanjing. It includes the Qilin High-tech Zone, a direct department of Nanjing Municipality, the Nanjing Economic and Technological Development Zone, and the Xianlin University Town, an agency dispatched by the municipal government. In 2019, the Jiangsu Nanjing National Agricultural High-tech Industry Demonstration Zone was established.

| Division Code | Division Name | Hanyu Pinyin | Nanjing Dialect Pinyin | Area (sq km) | Resident Population (2020 Census) | Government Seat | Postal Code | Subdistrict Offices | Towns | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 320100 | Nanjing City | Nánjīng Shì | Lang²jin¹ Shr⁴ | 6,587.02 | 9,314,685 | Xuanwu District | 210008 | 94 | 6 | | 320102 | Xuanwu District | Xuánwǔ Qū | Xüän²u³ Qü¹ | 75.46 | 537,825 | Meiyuan Xincun Subdistrict | 210018 | 7 | | | 320104 | Qinhuai District | Qínhuái Qū | Cin²huä² Qü¹ | 49.11 | 740,809 | Wulaocun Subdistrict | 210001 | 12 | | | 320105 | Jianye District | Jiànyè Qū | Jän⁴ie⁵ Qü¹ | 82.93 | 534,257 | Shazhou Subdistrict | 210004 | 6 | | | 320106 | Gulou District | Gǔlóu Qū | Gu²lou² Qü¹ | 53 | 940,387 | Ninghailu Subdistrict | 210009 | 13 | | | 320111 | Pukou District | Pǔkǒu Qū | Pu³kou³ Qü¹ | 910.49 | 1,171,603 | Jiangpu Subdistrict | 211800 | 9 | | | 320113 | Qixia District | Qīxiá Qū | Si¹xa² Qü¹ | 381.01 | 987,835 | Xianlin Subdistrict | 210046 | 9 | | | 320114 | Yuhuatai District | Yǔhuātái Qū | ܳhua¹tä² Qü¹ | 132.39 | 608,780 | Yuhua Subdistrict | 210012 | 6 | | | 320115 | Jiangning District | Jiāngníng Qū | Jang¹lin² Qü¹ | 1,577.75 | 1,926,117 | Dongshan Subdistrict | 211100 | 10 | | | 320116 | Luhe District | Lùhé Qū | Lu⁵ho⁵ Qü¹ | 1,470.99 | 946,563 | Xiongzhou Subdistrict | 211500 | 11 | 1 | | 320117 | Lishui District | Lìshuǐ Qū | Li⁵shuei³ Qü¹ | 1,063.67 | 491,336 | Yongyang Subdistrict | 211200 | 5 | 3 | | 320118 | Gaochun District | Gāochún Qū | Gao¹chuen² Qü¹ | 790.23 | 429,173 | Chunxi Subdistrict | 211300 | 6 | 2 |

Note: The figures for Qixia District include the three subdistricts of Longtan, Qixia, and Xigang under the jurisdiction of the Nanjing Economic and Technological Development Zone. The figures for Luhe District include the three subdistricts of Getang, Changlu, and Dachang under the jurisdiction of the Nanjing Chemical Industry Park.

4. Political Reform Pilots

Nanjing is one of the earliest regions in China to achieve "full coverage" of public recommendation and direct election for primary-level Party organizations. In 2004, Nanjing conducted pilot programs for public recommendation and direct election in several community and township Party committees. In 2009 and 2010, all 363 community and 806 village Party committee secretaries in the city were selected through public recommendation and direct election by Party members. This was evaluated as a new attempt by the Communist Party of China to consolidate its long-term governance. Nanjing is also one of the earlier regions in mainland China to conduct televised debates for local officials. On March 27, 2008, 16 deputy-level municipal officials in Nanjing delivered speeches and answered questions in a televised broadcast, openly competing for four bureau director positions. The selection process involved over 200 on-site representatives ranking the candidates based on evaluations, including organizational assessments and job characteristics. Through multi-candidate voting, two recommended candidates were proposed for each position, followed by another round of multi-candidate voting. According to statistics, over 200,000 viewers in Nanjing watched the live broadcast that day. This move was commented on as "a milestone and a pilot for democratic politics in mainland China."

5. Economy

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, particularly after the reform and opening-up, Nanjing's economy has developed rapidly. In December 1968, after the opening of the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, a number of key enterprises were successively established in the northeastern suburbs of Nanjing, the Meishan area in the southwestern suburbs, and Dachang in the Jiangbei area, forming three industrial zones. Following the reform and opening-up in the 1980s, as Nanjing's economy was primarily state-owned, its development lagged behind other Yangtze River Delta cities like Suzhou and Wuxi, which were dominated by foreign and private enterprises. Nevertheless, Nanjing remains one of the most important economies in Jiangsu Province.

According to the statistical yearbook of China's National Bureau of Statistics, Nanjing's total economic output in 2017 reached 1,171.5 billion yuan, ranking 11th among Chinese cities and 2nd in Jiangsu Province (after Suzhou). The added value of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries accounted for 2.4%, 39.2%, and 58.4% respectively, with the proportion of the tertiary industry continuously increasing. Nanjing is the fourth largest economy in the cities along the Yangtze River (after Shanghai, Chongqing, and Wuhan) and the fifth among China's provincial capitals (after Guangzhou, Chengdu, Wuhan, and Hangzhou). In 2016, Nanjing's total fiscal revenue was 219.854 billion yuan, of which local general public budget revenue was 114.26 billion yuan. In 2012, in the "Evaluation Report on the Headquarters Economic Development Capability of 35 Major Mainland Cities" released by the China Headquarters Economy Research Center, Nanjing ranked seventh nationwide. Well-known local enterprises in Nanjing include Panda Electronics, Yangzi Petrochemical, Jinling Petrochemical, Tuniu (a tourism website), Suguo Supermarket, Nanjing brand cigarettes, Jiangnan Optoelectronic, Suning Appliance, Suning.com, Suning Universal, Yurun, Yuejin Automobile, Pacific Construction, Five Star Appliance, Hongtu Sanbao, Sumec, Focus Technology (Made-in-China.com). Notable foreign and Taiwanese enterprises with regional headquarters or factories in Nanjing include TSMC, Ericsson, LG Chem, Siemens, and Phoenix Contact. Major domestic technology companies, such as Huawei, ZTE, Xiaomi, Alibaba, and Tencent, also have regional headquarters or research centers in Nanjing.

5.1. Primary Industry

Nanjing, characterized by a subtropical monsoon climate with simultaneous heat and rainfall and abundant precipitation, is suitable for agricultural production and is an important agricultural region in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Nanjing's leading industries include high-quality grain and oil, green vegetables, economic forest fruits, specialty aquatic products, and healthy livestock and poultry. Famous products include crabs, freshwater shrimp, specialty vegetables, high-quality rice, salted duck, and Yuhua tea. In 2015, the added value of Nanjing's primary industry was 41.527 billion yuan, with a total annual grain output of 1.1406 million tons and a total annual meat output of 104,700 tons.

5.2. Secondary Industry

Nanjing's modern industry began with the establishment of the Jinling Machinery Manufacturing Bureau during the Westernization Movement in 1865. After the opening of the Tianjin-Pukou Railway and the designation of Nanjing as the capital by the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China, Nanjing's industry further developed. The Jiangnan Cement Plant, Yongli Ammonia Plant, and Central Electrical Equipment Factory, built by national capital and the Nationalist Government respectively, laid the initial foundation for Nanjing's building materials, chemical, and electronics industries. By 1948, the city had nearly 20,000 industrial workers. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Nanjing's industry developed rapidly, with new pillar industries such as petrochemicals, automobile manufacturing, steel metallurgy, and mechanical equipment emerging. During the planned economy era, Nanjing was a comprehensive industrial city with its total industrial output value ranking among the top ten nationwide. It successively gave birth to China's first phosphate fertilizer plant, the first domestically produced electronic tube, the first fully domestically produced radio, the first wireless digital satellite communication station, the first radar, and the first fully automatic washing machine. State-owned, military-industrial, and related enterprises, such as Guorui Technology and Aerospace Chenguang, still hold important positions in Nanjing's industrial structure.

Nanjing's four pillar industries in the industrial sector are electronics, automobiles, petrochemicals, and steel, with biopharmaceuticals, new materials, new optoelectronics, and communications serving as new growth points. In 2019, the city proposed building five industrial landmarks: integrated circuits, new energy vehicles, artificial intelligence, biomedicine, and software and information services. Important enterprises established, introduced, or developed in Nanjing since 2015 include TSMC, China Automotive Innovation Corporation, Lingxing Technology, LG Energy Solution (battery project), Pharmaron, Alibaba's Nanjing headquarters, and Xiaomi's East China headquarters. The city hosts the national-level Nanjing Jiangbei New Area, four national-level development zones (Nanjing High-Tech Industrial Development Zone, Nanjing Economic and Technological Development Zone, Nanjing Chemical Industry Park, and Jiangning Economic and Technological Development Zone), and five provincial-level development zones. In 2008, Nanjing ranked first among the "Top Ten Strong Cities in Manufacturing," with its urban manufacturing economic creativity ranking sixth, technological innovation capability ranking first, and environmental resource protection capability ranking fifth. In 2009, Nanjing became the only national pilot city for comprehensive reform of the science and technology system. In 2011, the total output value of Nanjing's industrial enterprises above designated size was 1,035.2 billion yuan, with industrial tax revenue of 62.764 billion yuan, accounting for 44.1% of the city's total tax revenue. The comprehensive economic benefit index of industrial enterprises above designated size was 307.33, exceeding Suzhou by 93.1.

5.3. Tertiary Industry

In 2016, Nanjing achieved a total retail sales of consumer goods of 508.82 billion yuan. Nanjing's main commercial districts include Xinjiekou, Hunan Road, Confucius Temple, and Zhujiang Road. Xinjiekou, located in the city center, developed into a commercial district during the Republican era and now hosts a large number of major stores. Hunan Road, located in Gulou District, is primarily a new commercial district that emerged after the 1990s. Confucius Temple, located in Qinhuai District, is one of Nanjing's oldest traditional commercial districts. Since 1985, it has been gradually renovated into an antique-style street market, known for its dining and entertainment (commercial center district). Zhujiang Road, located in Xuanwu District and serving as the district government's seat, is one of the largest distribution centers for IT products in East China (specialty commercial street).

In the 2013 Forbes ranking of the Best Commercial Cities in Mainland China, Nanjing ranked fourth among mainland cities, after Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Shanghai. In the Hong Kong Trade Development Council's consumption power rating for 30 mainland cities, Nanjing was rated as an AAA-level city. Nanjing is also listed among the ten Chinese cities with the most significant changes, as selected by Forbes magazine.

6. Transportation

Nanjing is located in the heart of the East China region and the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, serving as a vital transportation hub. The "Golden Waterway" Yangtze River and the Beijing-Shanghai Railway, a key artery of China's national railway network operated by China State Railway Group, converge here. Over 60 national and provincial highways in Nanjing connect it to other parts of China, with multiple expressways radiating outward from the city, including Shanghai-Nanjing, Nanjing-Hefei, Nanjing-Hangzhou, Nanjing-Nantong, Nanjing-Lianyungang, Nanjing-Gaochun, and Nanjing-Luoyang. Within the Nanjing metropolitan area, eight transportation corridors have been constructed: Nanjing-Yangzhou, Nanjing-Zhenjiang, Nanjing-Huai'an, Nanjing-Bengbu, Nanjing-Hefei, Nanjing-Ma'anshan, Nanjing-Hangzhou, and Nanjing-Gaochun. With ongoing railway development, Nanjing has become a key railway hub in the Yangtze River Delta.

6.1. Intercity Transportation

6.1.1. Road Transport

By the end of 2016, Nanjing's total road mileage reached 11,211.49 kilometers, including 10,990.75 kilometers of classified roads and 3,074.98 kilometers of high-grade roads (secondary and above). The city has 827.34 kilometers of national highways and 621.02 kilometers of provincial highways, with a total expressway mileage of 613.62 kilometers. Currently, five Chinese national expressways pass through Nanjing: G25 Changshen Expressway, G36 Ningluo Expressway, G40 Hushan Expressway, G42 Hurong Expressway, and G4211 Ningwu Expressway. Additionally, four national highways traverse the city: National Highways 104, 205, 235, 312, 328, and 346, with National Highway 347 having its zero-kilometer starting point here. With urban development, following the launch of the Nanjing-Lishui intercity bus on January 1, 2010, intercity bus routes from Nanjing to Jurong and Nanjing to Zhenjiang were successively opened in 2011.

List of Nanjing Long-Distance Public Transport Hubs (Passenger)

| Railway Stations | Nanjing Station, Nanjing South Station, Nanjing North Station (under construction), Xianlin Station, Jiangning Station, Jiangning West Station, Lishui Station, Liuhe Station (suspended), Pukou Station (not yet opened), Zijinshan East Station (not yet opened) | | --- | --- | | Long-Distance Bus Stations | Nanjing Coach Station, Long-Distance East Station, Qiaobei Coach Station, Long-Distance South Station, Jiangning Long-Distance Bus Station, Lishui Long-Distance Bus Station, Gaochun Long-Distance Bus Station, Getang Long-Distance Bus Station | | Airport | Nanjing Lukou International Airport | | Decommissioned | Nanjing North Station, Dajiaochang Airport, Nanjing West Station, Zhonghuamen Station, Zhongyangmen Long-Distance Bus Station, Xiaguan Long-Distance Bus Station, Hanzhongmen Long-Distance Bus Station, Maqun Long-Distance Bus Station, Zhonghuamen Long-Distance Bus Station, Hanfujie Long-Distance Bus Station, Jiangpu Coach Station, Pukou Bus Station |

6.1.2. Railway Transport

Nanjing is a crucial railway hub connecting North China, East China, and Central China. Not only do the operational Beijing-Shanghai Railway, Nanjing-Tongling Railway, Nanjing-Qidong Railway, Nanjing-Xi'an Railway, Hefei-Nanjing Railway (all under China State Railway Group), and the Shanghai-Nanjing High-Speed Railway converge in Nanjing, but the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway, Shanghai-Wuhan-Chengdu High-Speed Railway, Nanjing-Anqing Passenger Dedicated Line, and Nanjing-Hangzhou Passenger Dedicated Line also intersect at Nanjing South Station.

Nanjing Railway Station, located on the north bank of Xuanwu Lake, was originally built in 1968, the same year as the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge. In the early hours of November 12, 1999, the station's waiting hall was completely destroyed by a fire. Reconstructed on its original site as a key project for the 10th National Games, the new station was completed on September 1, 2005.

Nanjing South Station, put into operation on June 28, 2011, has a total floor area of approximately 458,000 square meters, with the main station building covering 281,500 square meters and the arrival/departure yard spanning 12,200 square meters. It is a major high-speed rail hub in mainland China, serving as the passenger hub for the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway, Shanghai-Wuhan-Chengdu Passenger Dedicated Line, and Nanjing-Anqing Passenger Dedicated Line, and is one of the five originating stations for the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway. On December 6, 2015, the Nanjing-Anqing Passenger Dedicated Line began operation, starting from Nanjing South Station and passing through Jiangning West Station.

6.1.3. Air Transport

Nanjing Lukou International Airport is located in Lukou Subdistrict, Jiangning District, Nanjing, 35.8 kilometers from the city center. Construction began on February 28, 1995, and it officially opened on July 1, 1997, becoming an international airport on December 26, 1997. It is a major domestic trunk airport and a primary cargo airport in East China. The airport covers an area of 9,562 mu, with its flight zone meeting 4F standards, and operates 24-hour service. In 2010, the airport handled 116,100 aircraft movements, 12.53 million passengers, and 234,300 tons of cargo and mail, ranking 13th nationally in passenger throughput and 10th in cargo and mail throughput.

Nanjing Lukou International Airport currently hosts three base airlines: China Eastern Airlines Jiangsu Branch, China Postal Airlines, and Shenzhen Airlines Jiangsu Branch. Twenty-six airlines, including Air China and China Southern Airlines, operate scheduled flights at the airport. It has nearly 120 routes connecting 42 major domestic cities, 19 international cities, and 2 regional cities. In 2008, Nanjing became a direct cross-strait flight destination. On July 12, 2014, the airport's second runway and second terminal were put into use, designed to handle 30 million passengers and 800,000 tons of cargo and mail annually by 2020. The first terminal was closed for renovation.

6.1.4. Port and Water Transport

Nanjing Port is a significant inland river port in China, with shipping routes connecting to nearly 200 ports in over 80 countries and regions. In 2016, Nanjing had 285 port berths, including 61 berths of 10,000-ton capacity and 4 buoy berths of 10,000-ton capacity. The total port warehouse area in the city was 289,067 square meters, and the port handled 3.08 million TEUs of container throughput.

6.1.5. River Crossings

The Nanjing section of the Yangtze River currently has six cross-river bridges: the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, Nanjing Baaguazhou Yangtze River Bridge (formerly Nanjing Second Yangtze River Bridge), Nanjing Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge (formerly Nanjing Third Yangtze River Bridge), Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge, Nanjing Qixiashan Yangtze River Bridge (formerly Nanjing Fourth Yangtze River Bridge), and Nanjing Jiangxinzhou Yangtze River Bridge (formerly Nanjing Fifth Yangtze River Bridge), along with the Shangba Jiajiang Bridge in the Jiajiang section. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge is China's first self-designed and constructed road-rail dual-purpose bridge across the Yangtze, while the Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge is the world's heaviest-loaded six-track railway bridge; the others are road bridges. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge carries the Beijing-Shanghai Railway across the river, and the Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge is shared by the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway, Shanghai-Wuhan-Chengdu Railway, and the operational Nanjing Metro Line S3. These two railway bridges are the only rail crossings on the main stream of the Yangtze River downstream of Wuhu, requiring trains from Nantong, Taizhou, and Yangzhou bound for Shanghai and Zhejiang to detour via Nanjing. Nanjing has also constructed the Nanjing Yingtian Avenue Yangtze River Tunnel (formerly Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel), Nanjing Dinghuaimen Yangtze River Tunnel (formerly Nanjing Yangtze River Yangzijiang Tunnel), Nanjing Metro Line 3 Cross-River Tunnel, and Nanjing Metro Line 10 Cross-River Tunnel.

6.2. Urban Transportation

6.2.1. Rail Transit

Nanjing opened its first metro line on September 3, 2005, becoming the fifth city in mainland China to have a metro system. As of May 2024, the Nanjing Metro operates 13 lines: Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 4, Line 5 (southern section), Line 7 (northern & southern sections), Line 10, Line S1, Line S3, Line S4 (Chuzhou section), Line S6, Line S7, Line S8, and Line S9, with a total of 223 stations and a network length of 508 kilometers. By length, it ranks as the ninth-largest metro system in mainland China. Lines currently under construction include Line 5, Line 7 (central section), Line 6, Line S2, Line S4 (Nanjing section), Line S5, Phase 1 of Line 11, and Phase 2 of Line 4, with a total investment of 116.94 billion yuan and an annual planned investment of 13.6 billion yuan, set to open in the coming years. The Nanjing Metro handles an average daily passenger flow of about 3 million, accounting for over one-third of the city's conventional public transport ridership. According to plans, urban public transport in Nanjing will primarily rely on the metro in the future to meet the travel demands of a projected urban population of 10.6 million by 2020.

6.2.2. Bus Routes

Nanjing has a relatively convenient bus network. After restructuring, the bus system adopted a "3+1" model operated by Nanjing Public Transport Group, comprising Jiangnan Public Transport Co., Ltd., Yangzi Public Transport Co., Ltd., Dongshan Public Transport Co., Ltd., and the Depot Company. However, Dongshan Public Transport was later transferred to the Jiangning Public Transport Group for operation, and Jiangnan Public Transport, Yangzi Public Transport, and the Depot Company were dissolved in 2019, rendering the "3+1" model defunct. The network operates 418 bus routes, including 7 ferry routes, 118 suburban routes, 209 urban routes, 26 night routes, and 65 feeder routes. The total route length is 6,773 kilometers, with 6,188 buses in operation and an average daily passenger volume of 2.75 million.

7. Education and Scientific Research

Ancient Nanjing boasted a thriving education system. The earliest recorded school was established in AD 30 (the sixth year of the Jianwu era of the Eastern Han Dynasty) by the Governor of Danyang. In 258, Emperor Sun Xiu of the Eastern Wu issued an edict to establish a National Academy. During the Song Dynasty, the Maoshan Academy in Jiangning Prefecture was one of the six great academies of the time. In the Ming Dynasty, the Imperial College was established in Nanjing, serving as the national highest institution of learning.

In 1919, the Affiliated Primary School of National Southeast University opened a kindergarten. In 1923, Chen Heqin founded the Gulou Kindergarten, China's first experimental research center for early childhood education. Under the leadership of Tao Xingzhi, a number of rural kindergartens were established in the suburbs of Nanjing. In 1958, the Nanjing Municipal People's Government proposed that "all three-year-olds should enter kindergarten." The number of kindergartens increased from 11 in 1949 to 1,295, enrolling over 70,000 children. By 2011, the city had 551 kindergartens with 167,600 children enrolled. In the late 19th century, American missionaries established the first batch of primary schools in Nanjing. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, Nanjing had 40 public primary schools, including the Jiangning Fourth Model Primary School, and 10 private primary schools. After the Nationalist Government established its capital in Nanjing, primary education developed to some extent. In 1934, the city had 115 public primary schools and 30 private ones. The renowned educator Tao Xingzhi founded the Xiaozhuang School in Nanjing to train primary school teachers and led his students in establishing several rural primary schools in the Nanjing countryside. During the Republican period, the enrollment rate in Nanjing's primary schools never exceeded 50%, with the majority of children dropping out due to poverty. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the city's enrollment rate reached 94.4% by 1956. In 2015, Nanjing had 350 primary schools with 358,000 students and a 100% enrollment rate. In 1884, the American Presbyterian Mission established the Mingde Academy in Nanjing. The earliest modern public middle school in Nanjing was the Affiliated Middle School of the Sanjiang Normal School founded in 1902, the predecessor of today's Nanjing Normal University Affiliated High School. In 2011, the city had 220 regular middle schools with 237,700 students, and an additional 86,400 students in secondary vocational schools. Nanjing Foreign Language School, Nanjing Normal University Affiliated High School, Jinling High School, Nanjing No.1 Middle School, and Zhonghua Middle School are well-known middle schools renowned throughout the province and even the nation. Approximately 100 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering hail from Nanjing's primary and secondary schools. In 2007, Nanjing took the lead in implementing free compulsory education. Children from low-income families basically receive free education from kindergarten through high school. Migrant workers' children enjoy "equal city treatment." The preschool enrollment rate reached 96%, compulsory education coverage remained at 100%, and high school penetration reached 98.6%.

Nanjing is one of the cities in China with the most concentrated higher education resources. During the Republican period, Nanjing was home to nationally renowned institutions of higher learning such as National Central University, Private Jinling University, and Jinling Women's College of Arts and Sciences. In 1949, National Central University was renamed National Nanjing University. In 1950, the "National" prefix was dropped, and it became simply Nanjing University. Subsequently, the 1952 reorganization of colleges and departments led to the establishment of several institutions, including Nanjing University, Nanjing Institute of Technology, Nanjing Agricultural College, and Nanjing Normal College. After years of development, as of 2011, Nanjing had 53 regular institutions of higher education (excluding military academies), with 715,700 undergraduate and college students and 92,800 postgraduate students. It is home to two "Double First-Class" university construction institutions: Nanjing University and Southeast University. It also has ten "Double First-Class" discipline construction institutions: Hohai University, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing Normal University, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, and Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, among others. Additionally, there are seven key provincial universities like Nanjing Tech University. Nanjing has the highest number of "Double First-Class" construction institutions after Beijing and Shanghai. The gross enrollment rate in higher education in Nanjing is 57.9%, the average years of education exceed 14, the number of university students per 10,000 people exceeds 1,100, and the proportion of the population with higher education is second only to Beijing. In 2009, Nanjing was selected as "China's City with the Greatest Educational Development Potential."

Nanjing is an important scientific research base in China. Projects led by Nanjing's universities and research institutes have all won first prizes in the three major national science and technology awards. Nanjing has nearly 600 research and development institutions, including those under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, covering various fields of natural sciences and engineering technology. The city boasts relatively advanced research facilities and strong R&D capabilities. In 2011, the city had 256 engineering technology research centers at various levels, including 14 national-level, 199 provincial-level, and 43 municipal-level centers. Nanjing has two national laboratories under preparation, 24 national key laboratories, over 60 provincial-level key laboratories, and dozens of national engineering (technology) research centers. It possesses a well-established and fully functional science and technology service network, including over a hundred institutions for technology promotion, information, and services. There are more than 400 various scientific and technological associations and societies, including 200 at the provincial and municipal levels. Nanjing has nearly 400,000 scientific and technical personnel, approximately 80 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering residing in the city, and 40 entrepreneurial talents under the "Thousand Talents Plan." Since 2019, the Nanjing Municipal Government has held an Innovation Week during the last week of June each year.

8. Population

By the end of 2022, the city's permanent resident population was 9.4911 million, an increase of 67,700 people compared to the end of the previous year, representing a growth rate of 0.72%. Among them, the urban population was 8.258 million, accounting for 87.01% of the total population (urbanization rate of permanent residents), an increase of 0.11 percentage points from the previous year. The annual birth rate of the permanent resident population was 6.01‰, the death rate was 4.58‰, and the natural growth rate was 1.43‰.

As of 00:00 on November 1, 2020, the seventh national population census recorded the city's permanent resident population at 9.31 million, including 2.65 million floating population. By November 1, 2020, the urban population was 8.0852 million. Nanjing has a relatively large floating population, predominantly consisting of young and middle-aged individuals, with people aged 15–59 accounting for 68.27% of the permanent resident population. The male population accounted for 51.05% of the city's total population, with an overall gender ratio of 104.27 males per 100 females. The population distribution in Nanjing is highly concentrated. By the end of 2012, the population density in Nanjing exceeded 1,240 people per square kilometer, ranking fourth in the country. The total area of Xuanwu, Qinhuai, Jianye, Gulou, Qixia, and Yuhuatai (collectively known as the "Six Districts South of the Yangtze River") accounts for only 12% of the city's total area, yet their permanent resident population makes up 55% of the city's total, reaching 4.5 million. The population density in Gulou District and Qinhuai District reached 24,000 and 21,000 people per square kilometer, respectively, comparable to the population density of Beijing's main urban areas. The educational attainment of Nanjing's population is relatively high, reflecting the advantages of being a cultural city with numerous universities. In 2015, there were approximately 810,000 college students in the city, and 35.36% of the permanent resident population had attained a college-level education (associate degree or higher). The registered population was 6.6279 million, ranking first among sub-provincial cities in China, lower than Beijing but higher than Shanghai. However, Nanjing's population structure is facing challenges of aging and declining birth rates. The average household size has decreased to 2.77 people per household, and the proportion of children in the population has dropped to 9.51%, ranking last among sub-provincial cities in China. According to the 2010 population census data of Nanjing, the city is home to 54 ethnic minorities (excluding the De'ang ethnic group), with a total population of 99,189. Among them, the Hui ethnic group accounts for 70,388 people, making up over 70% of the total ethnic minority population. The Manchu, Mongolian, Miao, Zhuang, Korean, and Tujia ethnic groups each have populations exceeding 1,000. Additionally, there are over 40,000 ethnic minority students studying in universities in Nanjing.

9. Religion

During the Six Dynasties period, Taoist practitioners in Jinling, such as Ge Hong, Lu Xiujing, and Tao Hongjing, made significant advancements in alchemy and the pursuit of immortality. Maoshan in Jinling is a renowned Taoist sacred site. During the Republic of China period, the Doumu Palace on Baixia Road served as the center of Taoist activities in Nanjing. Today, the Tianhou Palace on Shengzhou Road is presided over by a successor of the Quanzhen Taoist school.

Buddhism was introduced to Nanjing in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and flourished significantly by the Southern Dynasties, as reflected in the saying, "Four hundred and eighty temples of the Southern Dynasties." Historically, Nanjing was the birthplace of Buddhist schools such as the Sanlun (Three Treatise) and Fayan (Dharma Eye) schools. Notable temples in Nanjing today include Qixia Temple, Jiming Temple, Linggu Temple, and Pilu Temple. The Jinling Buddhist Sutra Publishing House in Nanjing is a major center for the publication of Chinese woodblock-printed Buddhist scriptures. In 2008, a seven-treasure stupa dedicated to the "Buddha's Parietal Bone Relic" was discovered at the site of the Ming Dynasty's Great Bao'en Temple.

In the early Ming Dynasty, Nanjing had a large Hui population, and Islam was widespread, with the number of followers (Muslims) reaching 100,000, accounting for nearly one-tenth of the city's population. Since then, Nanjing has remained the city with the most concentrated Hui population in the southeastern coastal provinces. Currently, Nanjing has approximately 80,000 Hui residents, accounting for about half of the Hui population in Jiangsu Province. Most Muslims in Nanjing belong to the Gedimu school. The most important mosque in Nanjing is the Jingjue Mosque.

Nanjing is one of the national centers of Protestant Christianity in China, with over 20 churches and 50 meeting places. It is home to two theological schools: Jinling Theological Seminary and Jiangsu Bible College. The Amity Foundation, a Christian social service organization, and the Amity Printing Company, the world's largest Bible printing company, are both based in Nanjing. Three denominations—the Local Church, True Jesus Church, and Seventh-day Adventist Church—are relatively large, with followers ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 each. The famous Italian missionary Matteo Ricci introduced Catholicism to Nanjing in the late Ming Dynasty. Currently, there are approximately 3,000 Catholic followers and two churches in Nanjing. The Shigu Road Catholic Church serves as the cathedral of the Catholic Diocese of Nanjing.

10. Culture

Nanjing was the center of literature during the Six Dynasties period. In the eighth year of the Yongming era of the Southern Qi Dynasty (509 AD), the poet Xie Tiao wrote in his poem "Song of Entering the Court": "The beautiful land of Jiangnan, the imperial capital of Jinling, winding with green waters, rising with crimson towers," reflecting the splendor and prosperity of Jinling as an imperial capital during the Six Dynasties and the enterprising spirit of pursuing fame and achievement. Crown Prince Zhaoming compiled the Wenxuan here, and Liu Xie wrote The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons here. Some scholars believe that Nanjing is the premier location for studying Six Dynasties literature today. During the Tang Dynasty, Nanjing, as a deserted former capital, attracted numerous literati. Li Bai spent the longest time in Jinling, composing nearly 200 poems about Nanjing, including famous works such as "Song of Changgan," "Climbing the Phoenix Tower in Jinling," and "Farewell at a Jinling Wineshop." Nostalgic poems about Jinling became a major genre in Tang poetry, as seen in Liu Yuxi's "Black Robe Lane": "Wildflowers bloom by the Rosefinch Bridge, the setting sun slants over Black Robe Lane; swallows that once nested in the halls of Wang and Xie now fly into the homes of common folk." Li Yu, the last ruler of the Southern Tang Dynasty, born in Nanjing, was praised by Wang Guowei as "the master of a generation of ci poetry," writing many famous lines such as "If you ask how much sorrow I have, it is like a river of spring water flowing eastward." During the Song Dynasty, Wang Anshi lived in Nanjing for a long time, regarding it as his hometown, and was eventually buried in Banshan Garden at the foot of Zhongshan Mountain.

During the Ming Dynasty, the Nanjing Imperial Academy, as one of the two major official cultural publishing institutions in the country, primarily organized, repaired, and printed books based on the printing plates inherited from the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Its output and influence far surpassed that of the Beijing Imperial Academy during the same period. The world's largest encyclopedia at the time, the Yongle Encyclopedia, was compiled and transcribed at the Nanjing Imperial Academy. The largest medical work in ancient China, Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica, was also edited and published in Nanjing. In the early Qing Dynasty, Wu Jingzi settled in Nanjing and wrote The Scholars, which contains extensive and meticulous descriptions of Nanjing's scenery and the activities of literati. Cao Xueqin, the author of Dream of the Red Chamber, was born in Nanjing, and the twelve main female characters in the novel are named the "Twelve Beauties of Jinling." In the early Qing Dynasty, Kong Shangren's famous drama The Peach Blossom Fan is set in Nanjing during the transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty, depicting the love story between the literatus Hou Fangyu and Li Xiangjun, one of the "Eight Beauties of Qinhuai." The Qing Dynasty literatus Yuan Mei also chose to settle in Nanjing, constructing the Sui Garden in the western part of the city.

In the early years of the Republic of China, Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo wrote essays titled "The Qinhuai River with Oar Sounds and Lantern Shadows," both focusing on the Qinhuai River in Nanjing. In the 1930s, Pearl S. Buck completed her Nobel Prize-winning novel The Good Earth at her residence in Nanjing. Modern Nanjing remains one of the more active cities in literary creation, boasting well-known writers such as Ye Zhaoyan and Su Tong. In 2019, Nanjing was designated as a UNESCO City of Literature.

Nanjing is a major hub for Chinese painting and calligraphy. During the Six Dynasties period, masters such as Wang Xizhi and Gu Kaizhi emerged. In the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, the "Eight Masters of Jinling"—Gong Xian, Fan Qi, Gao Cen, Zou Zhe, Wu Hong, Ye Xin, Hu Zao, and Xie Sun—as well as the "Nine Masters of Jinling"—Dong Qichang, Wang Shimin, Yang Longyou, among others—were active in Nanjing. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, renowned painters such as Lü Fengzi, Xu Beihong, Zhang Daqian, Yan Wenliang, Lü Sibai, Chen Zhifo, Gao Jianfu, Zhu Shijie, Pan Yuliang, and Pang Xunqin gathered in Nanjing. Among them, Xu Beihong, Zhang Shuqi, and Liu Zigu were known as the "Three Masters of Jinling" in the painting world. In modern times, twelve well-known painters and calligraphers from Nanjing are referred to as the "Twelve Masters of Jinling," including Fu Baoshi, Liu Haisu, Chen Zhifo, Qian Songyan, Ya Ming, Song Wenzhi, Wei Zixi, and Chen Dayu. In the mid-to-late 20th century, Nanjing also saw the emergence of the "Four Masters of Jinling" from the "New Jinling Flower-and-Bird School"—Li Weiqing, Zhao Lianghan, Han Shaoying, and Zhang Zhengyin. Performing arts include Kunqu opera, Peking opera, Yue opera, Xiju opera, Yangzhou opera, and others. Unique local operas in Nanjing include Bai Ju and the Yangqiang Mulian opera of Gaochun. In 2015, the works of Nanjing painter Feng Lihuan were collected by the Tiananmen Rostrum.

11. Friendly Exchanges

11.1. International Sister Cities

| International Sister City | Country/Region | Date of Establishment | |---|---|---| | Nagoya | Japan | December 21, 1978 (Official exchanges suspended on February 21, 2012) | | St. Louis | United States | November 2, 1979 | | Florence | Italy | February 22, 1980 | | Leipzig | Germany | May 21, 1988 | | Mexicali | Mexico | October 14, 1991 | | Limassol | Cyprus | September 24, 1992 | | Daejeon | South Korea | November 14, 1994 | | London | Canada | May 7, 1997 | | Perth | Australia | May 18, 1998 | | Bloemfontein | South Africa | March 22, 2000 | | Barranquilla | Colombia | June 3, 2001 | | State of Malacca | Malaysia | September 18, 2002 | | Bandar Seri Begawan | Brunei | November 21, 2011 | | Mogilev | Belarus | September 25, 2014 | | Windhoek | Namibia | September 6, 2015 | | Metz | France | December 4, 2019 | | Tegucigalpa | Honduras | March 19, 2024 |

11.2. Domestic Sister Cities

| City | Type | Date of Establishment | |------------|------------|----------------| | Ürümqi | Sister City | April 5, 1984 | | Nanchang | Sister City | December 16, 1985 | | Nanning | Sister City | December 16, 1985 | | Taiyuan | Sister City | October 9, 1986 | | Xi'an | Sister City | May 21, 1987 | | Zhengzhou | Sister City | May 12, 1988 | | Xiamen | Sister City | October 1992 | | Ordos (Former Yekeju League) | Sister City / Former Sister League | September 1998 | | Lanzhou | Sister City | August 26, 2002 | | Guangzhou | Sister City | July 8, 2008 | | Harbin | Sister City | April 14, 2009 |

11.3. Economic Cooperation Cities and Regions

| Economic Cooperation City/Region | Country/Region | Date of Cooperation Establishment | |-------------|----------------|----------------| | Mersin | Türkiye | | Stuttgart | Germany | | Hauts-de-Seine Department | France | | Grand Est Region| France | | Croydon | United Kingdom | | Kobe | Japan | | Turin | Italy | September 23, 2002 | | Melbourne | Australia | August 14, 2002 | | Temuco | Chile | August 14, 2002 | | Belo Horizonte| Brazil | March 2005 | | Wayne County | United States | July 2006 | | City of Birmingham | United Kingdom | September 23, 2008 | | Kraków | Poland | May 2009 | | Hasselt | Belgium | May 2010 | | Uppsala | Sweden | May 2010 | | Bern | Switzerland | May 2011 | | Atlanta | United States | July 2011 | | Limerick | Ireland | March 4, 2012 | | Dallas | United States | | Boston | United States | | Houston | United States | | San Jose | United States | | Cleveland | United States | | Los Angeles County | United States | | Tirana | Albania | | Bengaluru | India | | Tijuana | Mexico | | Medellín | Colombia | | Osaka | Japan | | Yaroslavl | Russia | | Burgas | Bulgaria | | Altamira (Qinhuai District) | Mexico | | Queens (Jianye District) | United States | | Rotorua (Jiangning District) | New Zealand | | Göttingen (Qixia District) | Germany | | Pollica (Gaochun District) | Italy | | Aarhus (Qixia District) | Denmark | | Seferihisar (Gaochun District) | Türkiye | | Strasbourg | France | | Rovaniemi | Finland | | Dietfurt (Yuhuatai District) | Germany | | Maribor | Slovenia | | Havířov (Gulou District) | Czechia | | Muratpaşa (Xuanwu District) | Türkiye | | Lusaka (Qixia District) | Zambia |

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Xuanwu District

Jiangning District

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Cedar

Plum blossom